フランクとモンゴルの同盟とは？ わかりやすく解説

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フランクとモンゴルの同盟

出典: フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 (2024/04/14 05:00 UTC 版)

フランクとモンゴルの同盟はフランク人 (この場合、フランク王国に由来を持ち、西方教会、特にローマカトリック教会に属する西ヨーロッパの諸国と、それら諸国が起こした十字軍によって建国されたレヴァント地域の十字軍国家 (ウトラメール)諸国のことを指す) とモンゴル人の間で模索された協力関係を言う。13世紀、彼らの共通の敵であるイスラム国家に対抗するため、フランク人による十字軍国家とモンゴルの帝国の間では様々なリーダーによって何度かの同盟に向けた試みが行われた。この当時、モンゴル人は既にキリスト教を一部受容しており、モンゴル宮廷に多くの有力なネストリウス派キリスト教徒が存在していたことから、このような同盟への動きは当然の成り行きであった。要因の一つには、伝説として永らく語り継がれていたプレスター・ジョン (多くの信者がある日聖地に十字軍の援軍として現れると信じていた、東方の神秘的王国の王[1][2]) の伝説の存在がある。フランク (前出の通り、十字軍研究の分野では西欧諸国とそれらのレヴァント十字軍によって成立した国家のことを指す[3]) には東方からの援軍について、提案を受け入れ易い背景が整っていたと言える。フランク人とモンゴル人は、イスラム教徒を共通の敵としていたが、数十年の間に多くの文書、贈り物、特使が交わされたにもかかわらず、しばしば提案された同盟締結は、ついに有効な同盟実現には至らなかった[1][4]。


脚注
  1. ^ a b c d e Atwood. "Western Europe and the Mongol Empire" in Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. p. 583. "Despite numerous envoys and the obvious logic of an alliance against mutual enemies, the papacy and the Crusaders never achieved the often-proposed alliance against Islam".
  2. ^ a b Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 4. "The failure of Ilkhanid-Western negotiations, and the reasons for it, are of particular importance in view of the widespread belief in the past that they might well have succeeded."
  3. ^ Many people in the East used the word "Frank" to denote a European of any variety.
  4. ^ a b c Ryan. pp. 411–421.
  5. ^ a b c d Morgan. "The Mongols and the Eastern Mediterranean". p. 204. "The authorities of the crusader states, with the exception of Antioch, opted for a neutrality favourable to the Mamluks."
  6. ^ a b c d Edbury. p. 105.
  7. ^ Demurger. "The Isle of Ruad". The Last Templar. pp. 95–110.
  8. ^ a b c See Abate and Marx. pp. 182–186, where the question debated is "Would a Latin-Ilkhan Mongol alliance have strengthened and preserved the Crusader States?'"
  9. ^ a b Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 46. See also pp. 181–182. "For the Mongols the mandate came to be valid for the whole world and not just for the nomadic tribes of the steppe. All nations were de jure subject to them, and anyone who opposed them was thereby a rebel (bulgha). In fact, the Turkish word employed for 'peace' was that used also to express subjection ... There could be no peace with the Mongols in the absence of submission."
  10. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 121. "[The Mongols] had no allies, only subjects or enemies".
  11. ^ ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』1巻、146頁
  12. ^ a b Foltz. pp. 111–112.
  13. ^ Amitai. "Mongol raids into Palestine (AD 1260 and 1300)". p. 236.
  14. ^ a b c d Knobler. pp. 181–197.
  15. ^ Quoted in Runciman. p. 246.
  16. ^ a b c d Morgan. The Mongols. pp. 133–138.
  17. ^ Richard. p. 422. "In all the conversations between the popes and the il-khans, this difference of approach remained: the il-khans spoke of military cooperation, the popes of adhering to the Christian faith."
  18. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 72.
  19. ^ Tyerman. pp. 770–771.
  20. ^ Riley-Smith. pp. 289–290.
  21. ^ Tyerman. p. 772.
  22. ^ "In the Mongols' vocabulary, the terms for 'peace' and for 'subjection' were identical... The mere despatch of an embassy seemed tantamount to surrender." Jackson, p. 90
  23. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 90.
  24. ^ Morgan. The Mongols. p. 102.
  25. ^ Dawson (ed.) The Mongol Mission. p. 86.
  26. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 88.
  27. ^ 佐口透 編『モンゴル帝国と西洋』、p.63-65
  28. ^ Sinor. "Mongols in Western Europe". p. 522. "The Pope's reply to Baidju's letter, Viam agnoscere veritatis, dated November 22, 1248, and probably carried back by Aibeg and Sargis." Note that Sinor refers to the letter as "Viam agnoscere" though the actual letter uses the text "Viam cognoscere".
  29. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 89.
  30. ^ Hindley. p. 193.
  31. ^ Bournotian. p. 109. "It was at this juncture that the main Mongol armies appeared [in Armenia] in 1236. The Mongols swiftly conquered the cities. Those who resisted were cruelly punished, while those submitting were rewarded. News of this spread quickly and resulted in the submission of all of historic Armenia and parts of Georgia by 1245 ... Armenian and Georgian military leaders had to serve in the Mongol army, where many of them perished in battle. In 1258 the Ilkhanid Mongols, under the leadership of Hulagu, sacked Baghdad, ended the Abbasid Caliphate and killed many Muslims."
  32. ^ Stewart. "Logic of Conquest". p. 8.
  33. ^ a b Nersessian. p. 653. "Hetoum tried to win the Latin princes over to the idea of a Christian-Mongol alliance, but could convince only Bohemond VI of Antioch."
  34. ^ Stewart. "Logic of Conquest". p. 8. "The Armenian king saw alliance with the Mongols — or, more accurately, swift and peaceful subjection to them — as the best course of action."
  35. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 74. "King Het'um of Lesser Armenia, who had reflected profoundly upon the deliverance afforded by the Mongols from his neighbbours and enemies in Rum, sent his brother, the Constable Smbat (Sempad) to Guyug's court to offer his submission."
  36. ^ Ghazarian. p. 56.
  37. ^ May. p. 135.
  38. ^ Bournotian. p. 100. "Smbat met Kubali's brother, Mongke Khan and in 1247, made an alliance against the Muslims"
  39. ^ a b c d e Jackson. Mongols and the West. pp. 167–168.
  40. ^ Lebedel. p. 75. "The Barons of the Holy Land refused an alliance with the Mongols, except for the king of Armenia and Bohemond VI, prince of Antioch and Count of Tripoli"
  41. ^ a b c Tyerman. p. 806
  42. ^ Richard. p. 410. "Under the influence of his father-in-law, the king of Armenia, the prince of Antioch had opted for submission to Hulegu"
  43. ^ Richard. p. 411.
  44. ^ Saunders. p. 115.
  45. ^ Richard. p. 416. "In the meantime, [Baibars] conducted his troops to Antioch, and started to besiege the city, which was saved by a Mongol intervention"
  46. ^ a b Richard. pp. 414–420.
  47. ^ Hindley. p. 206.
  48. ^ Quoted in Grousset. p. 650.
  49. ^ a b c d Tyerman. pp. 815–818.
  50. ^ Jackson. "Crisis in the Holy Land". pp. 481–513.
  51. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 181.
  52. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 99.
  53. ^ Tyerman. p. 798. "Louis's embassy under Andrew of Longjumeau had returned in 1251 carrying a demand from the Mongol regent, Oghul Qaimush, for annual tribute, not at all what the king had anticipated."
  54. ^ Sinor. p. 524.
  55. ^ Tyerman. pp. 789–798.
  56. ^ Daftary. p. 60.
  57. ^ a b c d e Calmard. "France" article in Encyclopædia Iranica
  58. ^ Sinor. p. 531.
  59. ^ Demurger. Croisades et Croisés au Moyen Age. p. 285. "It really seems that Saint Louis's initial project in his second Crusade was an operation coordinated with the offensive of the Mongols."
  60. ^ a b Richard. pp. 428–434.
  61. ^ Grousset. p. 647.
  62. ^ Runciman. p. 303.
  63. ^ Lane. p. 243.
  64. ^ a b Angold. p. 387. "In May 1260, a Syrian painter gave a new twist to the iconography of the Exaltation of the Cross by showing Constantine and Helena with the features of Hulegu and his Christian wife Doquz Khatun".
  65. ^ Le Monde de la Bible N.184 July–August 2008. p. 43.
  66. ^ a b c Joseph p. 16.
  67. ^ a b Folda. pp. 349–350.
  68. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 120.
  69. ^ Takahashi. p. 102.
  70. ^ Runciman. p. 304.
  71. ^ Irwin. p. 616.
  72. ^ Richard. pp. 414–415. "He [Qutuz] reinstated the emirs expelled by his predecessor, then assembled a large army, swollen by those who had fled from Syria during Hulegu's offensive, and set about recovering territory lost by the Muslims. Scattering in passage the thousand men left at Gaza by the Mongols, and having negotiated a passage along the coast with the Franks (who had received his emirs in Acre), he met and routed Kitbuqa's troops at Ayn Jalut."
  73. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 116.
  74. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 105.
  75. ^ Richard. p. 411.
  76. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. pp. 120–122.
  77. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 165.
  78. ^ Richard. pp. 409–414.
  79. ^ Tyerman. p. 807.
  80. ^ Richard. pp. 421–422. "What Hulegu was offering was an alliance. And, contrary to what has long been written by the best authorities, this offer was not in response to appeals from the Franks."
  81. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 166.
  82. ^ Richard. p. 436. "In 1264, to the coalition between the Franks, Mongols and Byzantines, responded the coalition between the Golden Horde and the Mamluks."
  83. ^ Richard. p. 414. "In Frankish Syria, meanwhile, events had taken another direction. There was no longer any thought of conducting a crusade against the Mongols; the talk was now of a crusade in collaboration with them."
  84. ^ Reinert. p. 258.
  85. ^ Bisson. p. 70.
  86. ^ a b Hindley. pp. 205–207.
  87. ^ Nicolle. The Crusades. p. 47.
  88. ^ Richard. p. 433. "On landing at Acre, Edward at once sent his messengers to Abaga. He received a reply only in 1282, when he had left the Holy Land. The il-khan apologized for not having kept the agreed rendezvous, which seems to confirm that the crusaders of 1270 had devised their plan of campaign in the light of Mongol promises, and that these envisaged joint operation in 1271. In default of his own arrival and that of his army, Abaga ordered the commander of this forces stationed in Turkey, the 'noyan of the noyans', Samaghar, to descend into Syria to assist the crusaders."
  89. ^ Sicker. p. 123. "Abaqa now decided to send some 10,000 Mongol troops to join Edward's Crusader army".
  90. ^ Hindley. p. 207.
  91. ^ a b Amitai. "Edward of England and Abagha Ilkhan". p. 161.
  92. ^ a b Richard. p. 487. "1274: Promulgation of a Crusade, in liaison with the Mongols".
  93. ^ Setton. p. 116.
  94. ^ Richard. p. 422.
  95. ^ Biction de tout commerce avec les Sarasins, la fourniture de bateaux par les républiques maritimes italiennes, et une alliance de l'Occident avec Byzance et l'Il-Khan Abagha".
  96. ^ a b c d e f g Richard. pp. 452–456.
  97. ^ a b c Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 168.
  98. ^ a b c Amitai. Mongols and Mamluks. pp. 185–186.
  99. ^ a b Harpur. p. 116.
  100. ^ Jackson. "Mongols and Europe". p. 715.
  101. ^ Grands Documents de l'Histoire de France (2007), Archives Nationales de France. p. 38.
  102. ^ a b c d e f g Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 169.
  103. ^ Glick. p. 485.
  104. ^ Fisher and Boyle. p. 370.
  105. ^ Rossabi. pp. 99, 173.
  106. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. pp. 174–175.
  107. ^ Richard. p. 455.
  108. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 170. "Arghun had persisted in the quest for a Western alliance right down to his death without ever taking the field against the mutual enemy."
  109. ^ Mantran. "A Turkish or Mongolian Islam" in The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages: 1250–1520. p. 298.
  110. ^ Phillips. p. 126.
  111. ^ a b Richard. p. 455.
  112. ^ a b Jackson. "Mongols and Europe". p. 715.
  113. ^ a b Tyerman. p. 816. "The Mongol alliance, despite six further embassies to the west between 1276 and 1291, led nowhere. The prospect of an anti-Mamluk coalition faded as the westerners' inaction rendered them useless as allies for the Mongols, who, in turn, would only seriously be considered by western rulers as potential partners in the event of a new crusade which never happened."
  114. ^ Richard. pp. 455–456. "When Ghazan got rid of him [Nawruz] (March 1297), he revived his projects against Egypt, and the rebellion of the Mamluk governor of Damascus, Saif al-Din Qipchaq, provided him with the opportunity for a new Syrian campaign; Franco-Mongol cooperation thus survived both the loss of Acre by the Franks and the conversion of the Mongols of Persia to Islam. It was to remain one of the givens of crusading politics until the peace treaty with the Mamluks, which was concluded only in 1322 by the khan Abu Said."
  115. ^ Amitai. "Ghazan's first campaign into Syria (1299–1300)". p. 222.
  116. ^ Barber. p. 22: "The aim was to link up with Ghazan, the Mongol Il-Khan of Persia, who had invited the Cypriots to participate in joint operations against the Mamluks".
  117. ^ a b Nicholson. p. 45.
  118. ^ Demurger. The Last Templar. p. 99.
  119. ^ Phillips. p. 128.
  120. ^ a b c Schein. p. 811.
  121. ^ a b Jotischky. p. 249.
  122. ^ a b c Demurger. The Last Templar. p. 100.
  123. ^ a b c d Barber. p. 22.
  124. ^ a b c Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 171.
  125. ^ Mutafian. pp. 74–75.
  126. ^ Richard. p. 469.
  127. ^ Nicolle. The Crusades. p. 80.
  128. ^ Demurger. The Last Templar. p. 109.
  129. ^ Stewart. Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks. p. 181.
  130. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 216.
  131. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 203.
  132. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 314.
  133. ^ Phillips. p. 112.
  134. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 360.
  135. ^ Sinor. Inner Asia. p. 190.
  136. ^ Daniel and Mahdi. p. 25.
  137. ^ Wood. p. 136.
  138. ^ Mack. Throughout, but especially pp. 16–18, 36–40 (textiles), 151 (costume).
  139. ^ a b Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 173. "In their successive attempts to secure assistance from the Latin world, the Ilkhans took care to select personnel who would elicit the confidence of Western rulers and to impart a Christian complexion to their overtures."
  140. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 119.
  141. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 4.
  142. ^ Morgan. The Mongols. p. 136. "This has long been seen as a 'missed opportunity' for the Crusaders. According to that opinion, most eloquently expressed by Grousset and frequently repeated by other scholars, the Crusaders ought to have allied themselves with the pro-Christian, anti-Muslim Mongols against the Mamluks. They might thus have prevented their own destruction by the Mamluks in the succeeding decades, and possibly even have secured the return of Jerusalem by favour of the Mongols."
  143. ^ Prawer. p. 32. "The attempts of the crusaders to create an alliance with the Mongols failed."
  144. ^ a b Richard. pp. 424–469.
  145. ^ May. p. 152.
  146. ^ May. p. 154.
  147. ^ Demurger. The Last Templar. p. 100. "Above all, the expedition made manifest the unity of the Cypriot Franks and, through a material act, put the seal on the Mongol alliance."
  148. ^ Burger. pp. xiii–xiv. "The refusal of the Latin Christian states in the area to follow Hethum's example and adapt to changing conditions by allying themselves with the new Mongol empire must stand as one of the saddest of the many failures of Outremer."
  149. ^ Runciman. p. 402.
  150. ^ Nicolle. The Crusades. p. 42. "The Mongol Hordes under Genghis Khan and his descendants had already invaded the eastern Islamic world, raising visions in Europe of a potent new ally, which would join Christians in destroying Islam. Even after the Mongol invasion of Orthodox Christian Russia, followed by their terrifying rampage across Catholic Hungary and parts of Poland, many in the West still regarded the Mongols as potential allies."
  151. ^ Nicolle and Hook. The Mongol Warlords. p. 114. "In later years Christian chroniclers would bemoan a lost opportunity in which Crusaders and Mongols might have joined forces to defeat the Muslims. But they were writing from the benefit of hindsight, after the Crusader States had been destroyed by the Muslim Mamluks."
  152. ^ a b Nicolle. The Crusades. p. 44. "Eventually the conversion of the Il-Khans (as the Mongol occupiers of Persia and Iraq were known) to Islam at the end of the 13th century meant that the struggle became one between rival Muslim dynasties rather than between Muslims and alien outsiders. Though the feeble Crusader States and occasional Crusading expeditions from the West were drawn in, the Crusaders were now little more than pawns in a greater game."
  153. ^ a b c d Jackson. Mongols and the West. pp. 165–185.
  154. ^ Amitai. "Edward of England and Abagha Ilkhan". p. 81.
  155. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. pp. 121, 180–181.
  156. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 179.
  157. ^ Phillips. p. 130.
  158. ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 183.
  159. ^ Amitai. "Mongol imperial ideology". p. 59.

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