地球平面説とは？ わかりやすく解説

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地球平面説

出典: フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 (2024/03/19 10:08 UTC 版)

地球平面説（ちきゅうへいめんせつ）とは、地球の形状が平面状・円盤状であるという可能世界論である。古代の多くの文化で地球平面説がとられており、そのなかには古典期に入るまでのギリシア、ヘレニズム期に入るまでの青銅器時代〜鉄器時代の近東、グプタ朝期に入るまでのインド、17世紀に入るまでの中国がある。地球平面説は、ネイティブ・アメリカンの文化でも受容されており、逆さにした鉢のような形状の天蓋がかぶさった平面状の大地という存在論は、現在でも一般的である[1]。


補足
  1. ^ When Aquinas wrote his Summa, at the very beginning (Summa Theologica Ia, q. 1, a. 1; see also Summa Theologica IIa Iae, q. 54, a. 2), the idea of a round Earth was the example used when he wanted to show that fields of science are distinguished by their methods rather than their subject matter... "Sciences are distinguished by the different methods they use. For the astronomer and the physicist both may prove the same conclusion - that the earth, for instance, is round: the astronomer proves it by means of mathematics, but the physicist proves it by the nature of matter. History of Science: Shape of the Earth: Middle Ages: Aquinas Archived 2006年9月3日, at the Wayback Machine."
脚注
  1. ^ "Their cosmography as far as we know anything about it was practically of one type up til the time of the white man's arrival upon the scene. That of the Borneo Dayaks may furnish us with some idea of it. 'They consider the Earth to be a flat surface, whilst the heavens are a dome, a kind of glass shade which covers the Earth and comes in contact with it at the horizon.'" Lucien Levy-Bruhl, Primitive Mentality (repr. Boston: Beacon, 1966) 353; "The usual primitive conception of the world's form ... [is] flat and round below and surmounted above by a solid firmament in the shape of an inverted bowl." H. B. Alexander, The Mythology of All Races 10: North American (repr. New York: Cooper Square, 1964) 249.
  2. ^ Continuation of Greek concept into Roman and medieval Christian thought: Reinhard Krüger: Materialien und Dokumente zur mittelalterlichen Erdkugeltheorie von der Spätantike bis zur Kolumbusfahrt (1492)
  3. ^ Direct adoption of the Greek concept by Islam: Ragep, F. Jamil: "Astronomy", in: Krämer, Gudrun (ed.) et al.: Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, Brill 2010, without page numbers
  4. ^ Direct adoption by India: D. Pingree: "History of Mathematical Astronomy in India", Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. 15 (1978), pp. 533−633 (554f.); Glick, Thomas F., Livesey, Steven John, Wallis, Faith (eds.): "Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia", Routledge, New York 2005, ISBN 0-415-96930-1, p. 463
  5. ^ Adoption by China via European science: Jean-Claude Martzloff, "Space and Time in Chinese Texts of Astronomy and of Mathematical Astronomy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries", Chinese Science 11 (1993-94): 66-92 (69) and Christopher Cullen, "A Chinese Eratosthenes of the Flat Earth: A Study of a Fragment of Cosmology in Huai Nan tzu 淮 南 子", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 39, No. 1 (1976), pp. 106-127 (107)
  6. ^ a b Russell, Jeffrey B.. “The Myth of the Flat Earth”. American Scientific Affiliation. 2007年3月14日閲覧。
  7. ^ a b Members of the Historical Association (1945). Common errors in history. General Series, G.1. London: P.S. King & Staples for the Historical Association , pp.4–5. The Historical Association published a second list of 17 other common errors in 1947.
  8. ^ Like the Midrash and the Talmud, the Targum does not think of a globe of the spherical earth, around which the sun revolves in 24 hours, but of a flat disk of the earth, above which the sun completes its semicircle in an average of 12 hours. (The Distribution of Land and Sea on the Earth's Surface According to Hebrew Sources, Solomon Gandz, Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, Vol. 22 (1953), pp. 23-53, published by American Academy for Jewish Research.
  9. ^ The Egyptian universe was substantially similar to the Babylonian universe; it was pictured as a rectangular box with a north-south orientation and with a slightly concave surface, with Egypt in the center. A good idea of the similarly primitive state of Hebrew astronomy can be gained from Biblical writings, such as the Genesis creation story and the various Psalms that extol the firmament, the stars, the sun, and the earth. The Hebrews saw the earth as an almost flat surface consisting of a solid and a liquid part, and the sky as the realm of light in which heavenly bodies move. The earth rested on cornerstones and could not be moved except by Jehovah (as in an earthquake). According to the Hebrews, the sun and the moon were only a short distance from one another. - How to cite this article: MLA (Modern Language Association) style: "Cosmology." Encyclopedia Americana. Grolier Online, 2012. Author: Giorgio Abetti, Astrophysical Observatory of Arcetri-Firenze.
  10. ^ The picture of the universe in Talmudic texts has the Earth in the center of creation with heaven as a hemisphere spread over it. The Earth is usually described as a disk encircled by water. Interestingly, cosmological and metaphysical speculations were not to be cultivated in public nor were they to be committed to writing. Rather, they were considered to be "secrets of the Torah not to be passed on to all and sundry" (Ketubot 112a). While study of God's creation was not prohibited, speculations about "what is above, what is beneath, what is before, and what is after" (Mishnah Hagigah: 2) were restricted to the intellectual elite. (Topic Overview: Judaism, Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, Ed. J. Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen. Vol. 2. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2003. p477-483. Hava Tirosh-Samuelson).
  11. ^ H. and H. A. Frankfort, J. A. Wilson, and T. Jacobsen, Before Philosophy (Baltimore: Penguin, 1949) 54.
  12. ^ Anthony Gottlieb (2000). The Dream of Reason. Penguin. p. 6. ISBN 0-393-04951-5 
  13. ^ Berlin, Adele (2011). “Cosmology and creation”. In Berlin, Adele; Grossman, Maxine. The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion. Oxford University Press. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=hKAaJXvUaUoC&pg=PA189&dq=Bible+Cosmology&hl=en&sa=X&ei=jvHuTu_wDcStiQeFz62dBw&ved=0CGcQ6AEwCTgo#v=onepage&q=Bible%20Cosmology&f=false 
  14. ^ Pyramid Texts, Utterance 366, 629a-629c: "Behold, thou art great and round like the Great Round; Behold, thou are bent around, and art round like the Circle which encircles the nbwt; Behold, thou art round and great like the Great Circle which sets."(Faulkner 1969, 120)
  15. ^ Ancient Near Eastern Texts, Pritchard, 1969, p.374.
  16. ^ Coffin Texts, Spell 714.
  17. ^ Iliad, 28. 606.
  18. ^ The Shield of Heracles, 314-316, transl. Hugh G. Evelyn-White, 1914.
  19. ^ The shield of Achilles and the poetics of ekphrasis, Andrew Sprague Becker, Rowman & Littlefield, 1995, p.148.
  20. ^ Professor of Classics (Emeritus) Mark W. Edwards in his The Iliad. A commentary (1991, p.231) has noted of Homer's usage of the flat earth disc in the Iliad: "Okeanos...surrounds the pictures on the shield and he surrounds the flat disc of the earth on which men and women work out their lives". Quoted in The shield of Achilles and the poetics of ekphrasis, Andrew Sprague Becker, Rowman & Littlefield, 1995, p.148
  21. ^ Stasinus of Cyprus wrote in his Cypria (lost, only preserved in fragment) that Oceanus surrounded the entire earth: deep eddying Oceanus and that the earth was flat with furthest bounds, these quotes are found preserved in Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae, VIII. 334B.
  22. ^ Mimnermus of Colophon (630BC) details a flat earth model, with the sun (Helios) bathing at the edges of Oceanus that surround the earth (Mimnermus, frg. 11)
  23. ^ Seven against Thebes, verse 305; Prometheus Bound, 1, 136; 530; 665 (which also describe the 'edges' of the earth).
  24. ^ Apollonius Rhodius, in his Argonautica (3rd century BC) included numerous flat earth references (IV. 590 ff): "Now that river, rising from the ends of the earth, where are the portals and mansions of Nyx (Night), on one side bursts forth upon the beach of Okeanos."
  25. ^ Posthomerica (V. 14) - "Here [on the shield of Achilles] Tethys' all-embracing arms were wrought, and Okeanos fathomless flow. The outrushing flood of Rivers crying to the echoing hills all round, to right, to left, rolled o'er the land." - Translation by Way. A. S, 1913.
  26. ^ According to John Mansley Robinson, An Introduction to Early Greek Philosophy, Houghton and Mifflin, 1968.
  27. ^ The Physical World of the Greeks, Samuel Sambursky, Princeton University Press (August 1987), p. 12
  28. ^ Burch, George Bosworth (1954). “The Counter-Earth”. Osirus (Saint Catherines Press) 11 (1): 267–294. doi:10.1086/368583. 
  29. ^ De Fontaine, Didier (2002). “Flat worlds: Today and in antiquity”. Memorie della Società Astronomica Italiana, special issue 1 (3): 257–62. http://www.mse.berkeley.edu/faculty/deFontaine/flatworlds.html 2007年8月3日閲覧。. 
  30. ^ Aristotle, De Caelo, 294b13-21
  31. ^ Aristotle, De Caelo, II. 13. 3; 294a 28: "Many others say the earth rests upon water. This... is the oldest theory that has been preserved, and is attributed to Thales of Miletus"
  32. ^ Hippolytus, Refutation of all Heresies, i. 6
  33. ^ Anaximander; Fairbanks (editor and translator), Arthur. “Fragments and Commentary”. The Hanover Historical Texts Project. オリジナルの2005年12月28日時点におけるアーカイブ。. https://web.archive.org/web/20051228132148/http://history.hanover.edu/texts/presoc/anaximan.htm.  (Plut., Strom. 2 ; Dox. 579).
  34. ^ Hippolytus, Refutation of all Heresies, i. 7; Cf. Aristotle, De Caelo, 294b13-21
  35. ^ Xenophanes DK 21B28, quoted in Achilles, Introduction to Aratus 4
  36. ^ Diogenes Laertius, ii. 8
  37. ^ Hippolytus, Refutation of all Heresies, i. 9
  38. ^ FGrH F 18a.
  39. ^ Herodotus knew of the conventional view, according to which the river Ocean runs around a circular flat earth (4.8), and of the division of the world into three - Jacoby, RE Suppl. 2.352 ff yet rejected this personal belief (Histories, 2. 21; 4. 8; 4. 36)
  40. ^ The history of Herodotus, George Rawlinson, Appleton and company, 1889, p. 409
  41. ^ a b D. Pingree: "History of Mathematical Astronomy in India", Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. 15 (1978), pp. 533−633 (554f.)
  42. ^ The Sacred Tree in Religion and Myth, Mrs. J. H. Philpot, Courier Dover Publications, 2004, p.113.
  43. ^ "The world was a flat disk, with the earth in the center and the sea all around. Thus the serpent is about as far away from the center, where men and gods lived" (Norse mythology: a guide to the Gods, heroes, rituals, and beliefs, John Lindow Oxford University Press, 2002).
  44. ^ One of the earliest literary references to the world encircling water snake comes from Bragi Boddason who lived in the 9th century, in his Ragnarsdrápa (XIV)
  45. ^ “Gylfaginning”. Sacred-texts.com. 2013年2月9日閲覧。
  46. ^ “King's Mirror Section I”. mediumaevum.com. 2013年11月6日閲覧。
  47. ^ Nihongi, I, translation by W. G Ashton, 1896.
  48. ^ Kojiki, I: "The names of the Deities that were born next from a thing that sprouted up like unto a reed-shoot when the earth, young and like unto floating oil, drifted about medusa-like"
  49. ^ Ainu Folklore, Carl Etter, Kessinger Publishing, 1949, pp. 18-20.
  50. ^ a b Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. pp. 498.
  51. ^ “Jean-Claude Martzloff, "Space and Time in Chinese Texts of Astronomy and of Mathematical Astronomy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries", Chinese Science 11 (1993-94): 66-92 (69)” (PDF). 2007年4月16日閲覧。
  52. ^ Christopher Cullen, "Joseph Needham on Chinese Astronomy", Past and Present, No. 87. (May 1980), pp. 39-53 (42 & 49)
  53. ^ Christopher Cullen, "A Chinese Eratosthenes of the Flat Earth: A Study of a Fragment of Cosmology in Huai Nan tzu 淮 南 子", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 39, No. 1 (1976), pp. 106-127 (107-109)
  54. ^ Christopher Cullen, "A Chinese Eratosthenes of the Flat Earth: A Study of a Fragment of Cosmology in Huai Nan tzu 淮 南 子", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 39, No. 1 (1976), pp. 106-127 (107)
  55. ^ Needham, Joseph (1959), Science and Civilisation in China, 3, C.U.P., p. 219, ISBN 0-521-63262-5 
  56. ^ Christopher Cullen, "Joseph Needham on Chinese Astronomy", Past and Present, No. 87. (May 1980), pp. 39-53 (42)
  57. ^ Christopher Cullen, "A Chinese Eratosthenes of the Flat Earth: A Study of a Fragment of Cosmology in Huai Nan tzu 淮 南 子", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 39, No. 1 (1976), pp. 106-127 (108)
  58. ^ a b c Christopher Cullen, "A Chinese Eratosthenes of the Flat Earth: A Study of a Fragment of Cosmology in Huai Nan tzu 淮 南 子", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 39, No. 1 (1976), pp. 106-127 (109)
  59. ^ Needham p225
  60. ^ Dreyer, John Louis Emil (1953) [1905]. A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler. New York, NY: Dover Publications. pp. 20, 37–38. ISBN 0-486-60079-3. https://archive.org/details/historyofplaneta00dreyuoft 
  61. ^ Lloyd, G.E.R. (1968). Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of His Thought. Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 162–164. ISBN 0-521-07049-X 
  62. ^ Van Helden, Albert (1985). Measuring the Universe: Cosmic Dimensions from Aristarchus to Halley. University of Chicago Press. pp. 4–5. ISBN 0-226-84882-5 
  63. ^ Stevens, Wesley M. (1980). “The Figure of the Earth in Isidore's "De natura rerum"”. Isis 71 (2): 268–77. doi:10.1086/352464. JSTOR 230175, page 269 
  64. ^ Sedley, David N. (2003). Lucretius and the Transformation of Greek Wisdom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 78–82. ISBN 978-0-521-54214-2 
  65. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura, 1.1052-82.
  66. ^ a b Natural History, 2.64
  67. ^ a b Macrobius. Commentary on the Dream of Scipio, V.9-VI.7, XX.. pp. 18–24 , translated in Stahl, W. H. (1952). Martianus Capella, The Marriage of Philology and Mercury. Columbia University Press 
  68. ^ Cormack, Lesley (2009). “Myth 3: That Medieval Christians Taught that he Earth was Flat”. In Ronald Numbers. Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths About Science and Religion. Harvard University Press. pp. 30–31. ISBN 9780674057418 
  69. ^ Lactantius, The Divine Institutes, Book III, Chapter XXIV, THE ANTE-NICENE FATHERS, Vol VII, ed. Rev. Alexander Roberts, D.D., and James Donaldson, LL.D., American reprint of the Edinburgh edition (1979), W.B.Eerdmans Publishing Co.,Grand Rapids, MI, pp.94-95.
  70. ^ アウグスティヌス『神の国　(四)』服部英次郎・藤本雄三訳、岩波文庫、1986年6月16日、p153
  71. ^ q:en:Augustine of Hippo
  72. ^ Leo Ferrari, Cosmography, in Augustine through the Ages: An Encyclopedia, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids MI, 1999, p.246
  73. ^ Leo Ferrari, Augustine's Cosmography, Augustinian Studies, 27:2 (1996), 129-177.
  74. ^ J. L. E. Dreyer, A History of Planetary Systems from Thales to Kepler. (1906); unabridged republication as A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler (New York: Dover Publications, 1953).
  75. ^ J.L.E. Dreyer, A History of Planetary Systems, (1906), p.211-12.
  76. ^ St. John Chrysostom, Homilies Concerning the Statutes, Homily IX, paras.7-8, in A SELECT LIBRARY OF THE NICENE AND POST-NICENE FATHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH, Series I, Vol IX, ed. Philip Schaff, D.D.,LL.D., American reprint of the Edinburgh edition (1978), W.B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.,Grand Rapids, MI, pp.403-404. "When therefore thou beholdest not a small pebble, but the whole earth borne upon the waters, and not submerged, admire the power of Him who wrought these marvellous things in a supernatural manner! And whence does this appear, that the earth is borne upon the waters? The prophet declares this when he says, "He hath founded it upon the seas, and prepared it upon the floods."1416 And again: "To him who hath founded the earth upon the waters."1417 What sayest thou? The water is not able to support a small pebble on its surface, and yet bears up the earth, great as it is; and mountains, and hills, and cities, and plants, and men, and brutes; and it is not submerged!"
  77. ^ St.Athanasius, Against the Heathen, Ch.27 [1], Ch 36 [2], in A SELECT LIBRARY OF THE NICENE AND POST-NICENE FATHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH, Series II, Vol IV, ed. Philip Schaff, D.D.,LL.D., American reprint of the Edinburgh edition (1978), W.B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.,Grand Rapids, MI.
  78. ^ See Leone Montagnini, La questione della forma della Terra. Dalle origini alla tarda Antichità, in Studi sull'Oriente Cristiano, 13/II: 31-68
  79. ^ “Saint Basil the Great, ''Hexaemeron'' 9 - HOMILY IX - "The creation of terrestrial animals" Holy Inocents Orthodox Church”. 2013年2月9日閲覧。
  80. ^ a b c Russell, Jefrey Burton (1991). Inventing the Flat Earth: Columbus and Modern Historians. Praeger. pp. 86–87. ISBN 0-275-95904-X 
  81. ^ B. Eastwood and G. Graßhoff, Planetary Diagrams for Roman Astronomy in Medieval Europe, ca. 800-1500, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 94, 3 (Philadelphia, 2004), pp. 49-50.
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  83. ^ S. C. McCluskey, Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1998), pp. 114, 123.
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  85. ^ " In other passages of the Etymologies, he writes of anorbis" W.G.Randles (2000). Geography, Cartography and Nautical Science in the Renaissance. UK, Ashgate Variorum. p. 15. ISBN 0-86078-836-9  also in Wolfgang Haase, Meyer Reinhold, ed (1994). The Classical tradition and the Americas, vol 1. p. 15. ISBN 978-3-11-011572-7. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I1LEmKPgJ8MC&hl=en 2010年11月28日閲覧。 
  86. ^ Lyons, Jonathan (2009). The House of Wisdom. Bloomsbury. pp. 34–35. ISBN 1-58574-036-5 
  87. ^ Ernest Brehaut (1912). An Encyclopedist of the Dark Ages. Columbia University. http://bestiary.ca/etexts/brehaut1912/brehaut1912.htm 
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  89. ^ Isidore, Etymologiae, IX.ii.133 [4].
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  91. ^ Isidore, Etymologiae, III. XXXII [5].
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  94. ^ Grant, Edward (1974). A Sourcebook in Medieval Science (Source Books in the History of the Sciences). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-82360-0 
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  96. ^ Faith Wallis, trans., Bede: The Reckoning of Time, (Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Pr., 2004), pp. lxxxv-lxxxix.
  97. ^ Ælfric of Eynsham, On the Seasons of the Year, Peter Baker, trans Archived 2006年2月2日, at the Wayback Machine.
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  101. ^ Carey, John (1989). “Ireland and the Antipodes: The Heterodoxy of Virgil of Salzburg”. Speculum 64 (1): 1–10. doi:10.2307/2852184. JSTOR 2852184 
  102. ^ Kaiser, Christopher B. (1997). Creational Theology and the History of Physical Science: the Creationist Tradition from Basil to Bohr. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. p. 48. ISBN 90-04-10669-3. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=BBgXuy_D8WEC&printsec=frontcover 
  103. ^ Hasse, Wolfgang; Reinhold, Meyer, eds (1993). The Classical Tradition and the Americas. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-011572-7. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=I1LEmKPgJ8MC&printsec=frontcover 
  104. ^ Moretti, Gabriella (1993). The Other World and the 'Antipodes'. The Myth of Unknown Countries between Antiquity and the Renaissance. p. 265. ISBN 978-3-11-011572-7. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=I1LEmKPgJ8MC&pg=241. In Hasse & Reinhold (1993, pp.241–84). 
  105. ^ *Wright, Charles Darwin (1993). The Irish Tradition in Old English Literature. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 41. ISBN 0-521-41909-3. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=0ROrL2luVQYC&printsec=frontcover 
  106. ^ “CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: St. Vergilius of Salzburg”. Newadvent.org (1912年10月1日). 2013年2月9日閲覧。
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  108. ^ E. Grant, Planets. Stars, & Orbs: The Medieval Cosmos, 1200-1687, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1994), pp. 626-630.
  109. ^ “神学大全・第一部・第一問題・第一項”. 2013年12月17日閲覧。
  110. ^ Jill Tattersall (1981). “The Earth, Sphere or Disc?”. Modern Language Review 76: 31–46. 
  111. ^ Surat Al-Ghashiya 88:18-19 reads "Do they never reflect on .. the heaven, how it was raised on high? The mountains, how they were set down? The earth, how it was made flat?".
  112. ^ Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli; Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti. “from Juza '20 to Juza '30”. Tafsir al-Jalalayn͕. Translated by Feras Hamza. http://www.islamicdoctrines.com/documents/Tafsir-al-Jalalayn.pdf 2013年8月8日閲覧。 
  113. ^ “Surat Al-Ghāshiyah”. 2010年12月3日閲覧。
  114. ^ A spherical terrestrial globe was introduced to Beijing in 1267 by the Persian astronomer Jamal ad-Din, but it is not known to have made an impact on the traditional Chinese conception of the shape of the Earth (cf. Joseph Needham et al.: "Heavenly clockwork: the great astronomical clocks of medieval China", Antiquarian Horological Society, 2nd. ed., Vol. 1, 1986, ISBN 0-521-32276-6, p. 138)
  115. ^ Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. pp. 499.
  116. ^ a b 金沢英之 2004, pp. 17–18.
  117. ^ 青木昆陽は1525年に中国で書かれた『中国描談』という本により、日本に地球説が伝えられたとしているが、この本の伝来に不審な点があるため事実とは考えられていない(金沢英之 2004, pp. 41)
  118. ^ 金沢英之 2004, pp. 18–22.
  119. ^ 金沢英之 2004, pp. 22–27.
  120. ^ 金沢英之 2004, pp. 32.
  121. ^ 金沢英之 2004, pp. 33.
  122. ^ 金沢英之 2004, pp. 37.
  123. ^ 斎藤英喜 2001, pp. 8–9.
  124. ^ James. W. Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong, (Touchstone Books, 1996), p. 56
  125. ^ Russell, Jeffey Burton (1991). Inventing the Flat Earth—Columbus and Modern Historians. Westport, CT: Praeger. pp. 49–58. ISBN 0-275-95904-X 
  126. ^ Washington, Irving (1828). The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus. pp. 117–130. ISBN 0-559-56685-9. https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=uIADAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA127&q=&redir_esc=y&hl=ja 
  127. ^ Robertson, William (1783). The history of America. p. 88. https://archive.org/details/americahistorylo01robe 
  128. ^ Columbus, Ferdinand (1571). A History of the Life and Actions of Adm. Christopher Columbus. p. 520. https://archive.org/details/cihm_33298/page/n713/mode/2up?view=theater  in Churchill, Awnsham (1732). A Collection of voyages and travels. 2. pp. 501–624. https://archive.org/details/cihm_33298. "of this lower globe of earth and water, only a small compass was inhabited, which had remained in our hemisphere above water, and that all the rest was sea, and not navigable.... Others of them argued [that] ... he would not be able to return into Spain, because of the roundness of the globe,... affirming it would be like climbing a hill.... [All of them followed Augustine, who denies] that there should be Antipodes, or any going out of one hemisphere into the other." 
  129. ^ Morison, Samuel Eliot (1942). Admiral of the Ocean Sea. A Life of Christopher Columbus. Camden, NJ: Little, Brown and Co.. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-4067-5027-0. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=T5x5xjsJtlwC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false 
  130. ^ Garwood, Christine (2008) [2007]. Flat Earth—The History of an Infamous Idea. London: Pan Books. pp. 7–8. ISBN 978-0-330-43289-4 
  131. ^ Love, Ronald S. (2006). Maritime Exploration in the Age of Discovery, 1415–1800. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. pp. 41–42. ISBN 0-313-32043-8. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=YFFmpK0t98UC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false 
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  133. ^ Zacharia Lilio (1496). Contra Antipodes. Florence  cited by W.G.L.Randles (1980). De la terre plate au globe terrestre. Paris, Libraire Armand Colin. p. 31 
  134. ^ "Therefore the earth is not flat, as Empedocles and Anaximenes thought" Nicholas Copernicus (1543). On the revolutions. ISBN 0-8018-2039-1. http://www.webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-Copernicus.html 
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  136. ^ Parallax (Samuel Birley Rowbotham) (1881). Zetetic Astronomy: Earth Not a Globe (Third ed.). London:Simpkin, Marshall, and Co.. http://www.sacred-texts.com/earth/za/za32.htm 
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