シンハラ仏教ナショナリズムとは？わかりやすく解説

シンハラ仏教ナショナリズムはシンハラ人の文化や民族主義（ナショナリズム）と、スリランカのシンハラ人の多くが信仰する上座部仏教を重視するスリランカの政治思想である。

シンハラ人のナショナリズムは、6世紀に書かれたパーリ語の主要な年代記であるマハーワンサの内容から影響を受けている。

起源

スリランカの仏教を称えるために仏教僧が6世紀に書いたシンハラ仏教の国書『マハーワンサ』（『大紀元』）の神話史的記述は、シンハラ仏教のナショナリズムや戦闘的仏教の創造に影響を及ぼしている^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9]。マハーワンサでは、釈迦がスリランカを3度訪問し、仏教に不都合な勢力を排除し、シンハラ人の祖先（北インドからのヴィジャヤ王子とその信者）を守るよう神に指示してスリランカに仏教が定着し栄えるようにしたとされている^[10]^[11]。この神話により、この国はシハディパ（シンハラ人の島）であり、ダンマディパ（仏教を保存し伝播するために祀られた島）であるというシンハラ人仏教徒の信仰が広く定着している^[12]。

神話

スリランカの歴史に関する神話のほとんどは『マハーワンサ』に由来する。そのため、シンハラ仏教の民族主義者は、自分たちは仏陀に選ばれた人々であり、スリランカ島は仏教の約束の地であると主張している^[13]^[14]。また、マハーワンサにはスリランカの仏教戦士ドゥトゥガムヌとその軍隊が500人もの仏教僧に支えられ、南インドからやってきてアヌラーダプラ（当時の首都）の権力を掌握したタミル人の王エララとチョーラの軍隊と戦い、打ち負かしたことが記述されている。ドゥトゥガムヌは、自分が殺した数千人のタミール人を嘆き、慰めに来た8人の阿羅漢（仏陀に次ぐ地位の僧）たちは、「獣にも劣るタミールの不信心者（エララとその仲間）を殺しただけだから本当の罪はない」と答え、さらにこう言い放った。「汝は様々な方法で仏陀の教義に栄光をもたらすだろう、だから人の支配者よ、心から心配を捨てよ」^[15]^[16]^[17]。ドゥトゥガムヌのエララ王に対するキャンペーンは、マハーワンサがエララを良い支配者として描いているように不正を倒すためではなく、暴力を使ってでも仏教君主のもとスリランカを統一し、仏教を復興するためのものである^[18]。仏陀がスリランカを訪れた際、（「征服者」として）仏教に敵対する勢力であるヤッカ（島の非人間的住民・亜人として描かれている）を「心に恐怖」を与えて故郷から追い出し、やがて彼の教義が「栄光に輝く」ようにしたという話がマハーワンサで語られている。仏教のための暴力行使を正当化するものであり、仏教の下でのスリランカの政治的統一には非協力的で非シンハラ人の集団を排除する必要があるという著者の一般的メッセージに沿った記述であると評されている^[19]。

Neil DeVotta（政治学准教授）によれば、マハーワンサの神話史は、「ダルマ（仏教の教義）を維持、保護、伝播するために必要であれば、非シンハラ人への非人道的行為を正当化する。さらに戦争が仏教を守るために行われるのであれば、正戦の教義を正当化する。ヴィジャヤ神話とともに、釈迦がスリランカ島を上座部仏教を温存する場所として指定したというシンハラ仏教徒の信仰の根拠を紹介している。また、シンハラ人がこの島に最初に住んだ人間であり（シンハラ人以前の人間は亜人であった）、真の「土の子」であると主張している。さらに、この島の王は仏教を保護し、育成する義務があるという信念を植え付けた。これらの遺産はすべて、政治的仏教とシンハラ仏教ナショナリズムの軌跡に影響を及ぼしている」^[20]。

少数教徒・民族への迫害

スリランカ独立の父とされるダルマパーラは、シンハラ人がスリランカに仏教を持ち込んだ優秀な民族だとして、シンハラ人の優越感を煽り、また、スリランカにおける仏教徒をタミル人に多かった他のヒンズー教系の神を信仰する者ともはっきり区別し、シンハラ人女性に対してセイロン域内の少数民族と結婚しないように呼びかけた^[21]。これが独立後の政府の仏教優遇策・シンハラ人優遇策やシンハラ人の少数民族に対する差別思想につながり、もとからの英国の分割統治策によるシンハラ人とタミル人の間の経済的・社会的格差の問題もからんで、タミル人の分離独立運動とそれによる1983年から26年に及ぶ激しい内戦を招いた^[22]。

イスラム教徒に対する迫害の最初の大きな例は、2011年9月10日、仏教徒の僧侶がアヌラーダプラにある300年前のイスラム教のモスクを破壊したことである^[23]。

2012年4月20日には、ダンブッラのモスクがスリランカ仏教の聖地に建っていることから、約2000人の仏教徒がモスクの外で抗議活動を行った。これらの抗議活動により、モスクは仏教国粋主義者の脅迫を受けて礼拝を中止したが、翌日曜日、D・M・ジャヤラトナ首相はモスクを聖地から移転させるよう命令した^[24]。それ以来、BBSはスリランカのイスラム教徒を差別する手段として、スローガンやプロパガンダを用いて新たな迫害の形をとっている。

最近では2019年4月にイスラムのテロリストが仕組んだイースターの爆弾テロが発生し、250人以上のスリランカ人の命を奪い、500人以上のスリランカ人が負傷したことで、スリランカのイスラム教徒は警察や仏教国粋主義者からこれまで以上の危険に直面している^[25]。

戦後のスリランカでは、民族的・宗教的少数派はシンハラ仏教のナショナリズムからの脅威に直面し続けている^[26]^[27]^[28]。キリスト教徒が非倫理的な改宗や強制改宗を行っていると主張する仏教過激派による、キリスト教会への散発的な攻撃が続いている^[29]。ピュー・リサーチ・センターは、2012年にスリランカを宗教的敵対性が非常に高い国の一つとして挙げているが、これは仏教徒の僧侶がイスラム教徒やキリスト教徒の礼拝所に対して行った暴力によるものである^[30]。これらの行為には、モスクを攻撃することや、セブンスデー・アドベンチスト教会を強制的に占拠して仏教寺院に改築することなどが含まれる。

過激派の仏教指導者は、スリランカはシンハラ人仏教徒が仏教を守るための約束の地であると主張することで、少数派の礼拝場所への攻撃を正当化している^[31]^[32]。2012年に仏教僧によって設立された最近の仏教過激派グループであるボドゥ・バラ・セナ（BBS）（仏教勢力）は、2014年に4人のイスラム教徒が死亡し、80人が負傷した反イスラム暴動を扇動したとして告発されている^[33]。BBSのリーダーは、政府がLTTEに軍事的に勝利したことを、古代の仏教王がタミル王エララを征服したことと関連づけて、タミル人は2度教訓を得たと述べ、他のマイノリティがシンハラの仏教文化に挑戦しようとすれば同じ運命をたどると警告した^[34]。BBSはタリバンと比較され、過激主義とイスラム教徒に対する共同体的憎悪を広めていると非難され^[35]、「民族宗教的ファシスト運動」と表現されている^[36]。仏教徒はまた、内戦中の人道的虐待と戦争犯罪の可能性についての調査を求めた国連人権理事会の決議に抗議している^[37]。BBSは他の仏教徒の聖職者や政治家からも批判や反対を受けている。2015年から外務大臣を務めているスリランカのセラバダ仏教徒の政治家であるマンガラ・サマラウィーラは、BBSが「『タリバン』テロリズムの代表」であり、イスラム教徒に対する過激主義と共同体的憎悪を広めていると非難している^[38]^[39]。

脚注

^ Gregg, Heather Selma (2014-01-01). The Path to Salvation: Religious Violence from the Crusades to Jihad. Potomac Books, Inc.. p. 75. ISBN 9781612346601. "the Mahavamsa is a combination of myth, history, lineage, religion, and politics. It later became a tool for the creation of Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism and a document that determined the divine right of the Sinhalese to inhabit the island."
^ Zwier, Lawrence J. (1998-01-01). Sri Lanka: War-torn Island. Lerner Publications. ISBN 9780822535508. "The greatest importance of the Mahavamsa is not as history but as a symbol — and as a motivating force behind Sinhalese nationalism."
^ Grant, Patrick (2009-01-05). Buddhism and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka. SUNY Press. p. 51. ISBN 9780791493670. ""As Heinz Bechert says, the key to modern Sinhala national identity lies in the linking of religion and the people in Sri Lanka's ancient chronicle tradition. As we see, according to the Mahavamsa, Sinhalas are specially chosen by the Buddha and their political unity guarantees the survival of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, just as their political identity is guaranteed by their espousal of Buddhism.""
^ DeVotta 2007, p. 50.
^ Razak, Abdul; Imtiyaz, Mohamed (2010-03-09). Politicization of Buddhism and Electoral Politics in Sri Lanka. Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network. p. 36. SSRN 1567618. "The Sinhala-Buddhist worldview has been shaped and reshaped by the myths and the monkish chronicles such as the Mahavamsa, Culavamsa which underscore two crucial issues, the rightful heir of the state (Dhammadipa) and Sri Lanka as the repository of Buddhist message. Both these two issues have shaped the popular psyche and political discourses."
^ Gier, Nicholas F. (2014-08-20). The Origins of Religious Violence: An Asian Perspective. Lexington Books. p. 47. ISBN 9780739192238. "Buddhist nationalism has its roots in the Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, and Culavamsa, texts unique to Sinhalese Buddhism."
^ O'Grady, John; May, John D'Arcy; Schüttke-Scherle, Peter (2007-01-01). Ecumenics from the Rim: Explorations in Honour of John D'Arcy May. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 371. ISBN 9783825806378. "The ethnocentric character of Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka, which provides the ideological basis for the present Sinhala Buddhist nationalism, has its roots in the construction of the identity of the Sinhala people as one chosen to safeguard Buddhism. Chosenness here is part of a historical consciousness, mainly supported by post-canonical Pali literature - especially, the Mahavamsa - which, in one of its clauses, justifies killing for the sake of religion."
^ McGowan, William (2012年8月2日). “Buddhists Behaving Badly”. Foreign Affairs. 2016年2月20日閲覧。 “Militant Buddhism there has its roots in an ancient narrative called the Mahavamsa (Great Chronicle), which was composed by monks in the sixth century.”
^ Sailendra Nath Sen (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. p. 91. ISBN 978-81-224-1198-0
^ Deegalle 2006, p. 138.
^ Bartholomeusz 2005, p. 142.
^ DeVotta 2007, p. 6.
^ Bartholomeusz 2005, p. 20.
^ McGowan, William (2012年8月2日). “Buddhists Behaving Badly”. Foreign Affairs. 2016年2月20日閲覧。 “The Sinhalese take this as a sign that they are the Buddha's chosen people, commanded to "preserve and protect" Buddhism in its most pristine form.”
^ DeVotta 2007, pp. 7–8.
^ Deegalle 2006, p. 153.
^ “Chapter XXV THE VICTORY OF DUTTHAGAMANI”. lakdiva.org. 2016年2月20日閲覧。 “`From this deed arises no hindrance in thy way to heaven. Only one and a half human beings have been slain here by thee, O lord of men. The one had come unto the (three) refuges, the other had taken on himself the five precepts Unbelievers and men of evil life were the rest, not more to be esteemed than beasts. But as for thee, thou wilt bring glory to the doctrine of the Buddha in manifold ways; therefore cast away care from thy heart, O ruler of men!”
^ Grant, Patrick (2009-01-05). Buddhism and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka. SUNY Press. pp. 48–51. ISBN 9780791493670. ""The campaign against Elara is described at some length in the Mahavamsa, and it is clear that Dutthagamini does not move against Elara because the Tamil king was unjust, cruel, or tyrannical. The Mahavamsa points out that Elara was a good ruler, and, when he is killed, Dutthagamini has him cremated honorably, and erects a monument in his memory. In constructing the "Dutthagamini epic" as he does, Mahanama wants to make clear that the heroic task in hand is not the defeat of injustice but the restoration of Buddhism. The overthrow of the Tamil king is required first and foremost because Sri Lanka cannot be united unless the monarch is Buddhist. [...] The main point is the honor Dutthagamini brings "to the doctrine of the Buddha," and this greater good justifies the violence required to bring it about. [...] Mahanama's [author of the Mahavamsa] lesson for monarchs remains consistent: be as strong as you need to be to maintain the Buddhist state; be supportive of the Sangha and willing to defeat the enemy by force.""
^ Bartholomeusz 2005, p. 50.
^ DeVotta 2007, p. 8.
^ Sunil, Wijesiriwardhana (2010) Purawasi Manpeth. FLICT. pp. 222–223. ISBN 978-955-1534-16-5
^ “こころの時代　シリーズ徹底討論７「宗教と政治」宗教は「分断」をもたらすのか - NHKプラス”. 日本放送協会. 2025年7月8日閲覧。
^ Haviland, Charles (2011年9月15日). “S Lanka monks raze Muslim shrine” 2019年10月13日閲覧。
^ Imtiyaz, A.R.M.; Mohamed-Saleem, Amjad (2015-02-23). “Muslims in post-war Sri Lanka: understanding Sinhala-Buddhist mobilization against them”. Asian Ethnicity 16 (2): 186–202. doi:10.1080/14631369.2015.1003691. ISSN 1463-1369.
^ “Sri Lanka: Muslims Face Threats, Attacks”. Human Rights Watch (2019年7月3日). 2019年11月2日閲覧。
^ “International Religious Freedom Report for 2012”. www.state.gov. 2016年2月20日閲覧。 “There were reports of abuses of religious freedom. Although the government publicly endorsed religious freedom, in practice there were problems in some areas. Authorities were reluctant to investigate or prosecute those responsible for attacks on churches, Hindu temples, or mosques. While efforts to pass anti-conversion legislation reportedly declined, some Christian groups occasionally complained that the government tacitly condoned harassment and violence aimed at them. Police generally provided protection for these groups at their request. In some cases, the police response was inadequate and local police officials reportedly were reluctant to take legal action against individuals involved in the attacks.”
^ “International Religious Freedom Report for 2013”. www.state.gov. 2016年2月20日閲覧。 “There were reports of societal abuses and discrimination based on religious affiliation, belief, or practice. There was an overall decrease in societal respect for religious freedom, as Buddhist nationalist groups led campaigns targeting Muslims and Christians. Buddhist groups attacked churches and mosques.”
^ “International Religious Freedom Report for 2014”. www.state.gov. 2016年2月20日閲覧。 “"Authorities often did not investigate or prosecute those responsible for attacks on churches, Hindu kovils (temples), and mosques, and protected perpetrators of such violence. At times, local police and government officials appeared to be acting in concert with Buddhist nationalist organizations. Police continued to use a revoked 2011 government circular to coerce unregistered churches to register or be shut down. Eight masked men assaulted the pastor of New Blessing Church in Valaichchenai and his family when they reportedly failed to comply with the "government requirement" to submit a registration letter. In April President Rajapaksa acknowledged for the first time the increase in religiously-motivated violence and established a special religious police unit within the Ministry of Buddha Sasana (doctrine and practice) and Religious Affairs to address complaints. Some religious minorities, however, questioned the sincerity and efficacy of the effort, and the unit took no credible steps during the year to pursue prosecution of perpetrators of violence."”
^ “Sri Lanka”. U.S. Department of State. 2016年2月20日閲覧。
^ “Religious Hostilities Reach Six-Year High”. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project (2014年1月14日). 2019年10月14日閲覧。 “In Buddhist-majority Sri Lanka, for example, monks attacked Muslim and Christian places of worship, including reportedly attacking a mosque in the town of Dambulla in April 2012 and forcibly occupying a Seventh-day Adventist church in the town of Deniyaya and converting it into a Buddhist temple in August 2012.”
^ Haviland, Charles (2011年9月15日). “Sri Lanka Buddhist monks destroy Muslim shrine”. BBC. 2019年10月12日閲覧。 “The monk who led the group told the BBC he did it because the shrine was on land that was given to Sinhalese Buddhists 2,000 years ago.”
^ “Sri Lanka Muslims decry radical Buddhist mosque attack - BBC News”. BBC News. (2012年4月23日) 2016年2月20日閲覧. ""A Dambulla monk told the BBC that the actions were necessary because Sri Lanka was "the only country to safeguard Buddhism".""
^ “Bodu Bala Sena, Sri Lanka's Buddhist ultra-nationalists - CNN.com”. CNN (2014年7月18日). 2016年2月20日閲覧。 “The ultra-nationalist Sinhalese Buddhist organization has emerged as a troubling presence on the Sri Lankan political landscape in recent years, and is blamed by many for inciting the deadly violence in Aluthgama.”
^ Mohan, Rohini (2015年1月2日). “Sri Lanka's Violent Buddhists”. The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 2016年2月20日閲覧。
^ “BBSO challenges Mangala equating it to a terrorist outfit | The Sundaytimes Sri Lanka”. www.sundaytimes.lk. 2016年2月20日閲覧。
^ “The hardline Buddhists targeting Sri Lanka's Muslims - BBC News”. BBC News. (2013年3月25日) 2016年2月20日閲覧。
^ McGowan, William (2012年8月2日). “Buddhists Behaving Badly”. Foreign Affairs. 2016年2月20日閲覧。 “Another sign of militant Buddhism's enduring power is the government's refusal to confront the human rights abuses committed in the war's final push. President Rajapaksa, who went to Kandy, the cultural capital, immediately after the 2009 victory to genuflect to the country's top Buddhist clerics, has rejected a UN Human Rights Council resolution, passed in March, that called for an inquiry into humanitarian abuses and possible war crimes. Only recently did the Rajapaksa government concede that there were any civilian casualties at all. In fact, as the UNHRC voted on the March resolution, hundreds of Buddhist monks led a prayer vigil in Colombo against it. Hundreds more led protests when it passed.”
^ Bandara, Hansani (2013年2月17日). “BBSO challenges Mangala equating it to a terrorist outfit”. The Sunday Times (Sri Lanka)
^ Bastians, Dharisha (2013年2月15日). “Mangala says anti-Muslim campaign is 'playing with fire'”. Daily FT. オリジナルの2015年12月8日時点におけるアーカイブ。 2015年10月18日閲覧。

参考資料

Anagarika, Dharmapala (1965). Return to Righteousness: A Collection of Speeches, Essays and Letters of the Anagarika Dharmapala, ed. Ananda Guruge, The Anagarika Dharmapala. Birth Centenary Committee, Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs, Ceylon
DeVotta, Neil (2001). “The Utilisation of Religio-Linguistic Identities by the Sinhalese and Bengalis: Towards General Explanation”. Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, Vol. 39, No. 1: 66–95.
DeVotta, Neil (2007). Sinhalese Buddhist Nationalist Ideology: Implications for Politics and Conflict Resolution in Sri Lanka. East-West Center Washington
Tennakoon, Vimalananda (1963). “Buddhism in Ceylon under the Christian powers"
Wijewardena (1953). The Revolt in the Temple. Sinha Publications
Bartholomeusz, Tessa (2005). In Defense of Dharma: Just-War Ideology in Buddhist Sri Lanka (Routledge Critical Studies in Buddhism). Routledge
Deegalle, Maheenda (2006). Buddhism, Conflict and Violence in Modern Sri Lanka. Routledge

外部リンク

[1] Gregg, Heather Selma (2014-01-01). The Path to Salvation: Religious Violence from the Crusades to Jihad. Potomac Books, Inc.. p. 75. ISBN 9781612346601. "the Mahavamsa is a combination of myth, history, lineage, religion, and politics. It later became a tool for the creation of Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism and a document that determined the divine right of the Sinhalese to inhabit the island."

[2] Zwier, Lawrence J. (1998-01-01). Sri Lanka: War-torn Island. Lerner Publications. ISBN 9780822535508. "The greatest importance of the Mahavamsa is not as history but as a symbol — and as a motivating force behind Sinhalese nationalism."

[3] Grant, Patrick (2009-01-05). Buddhism and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka. SUNY Press. p. 51. ISBN 9780791493670. ""As Heinz Bechert says, the key to modern Sinhala national identity lies in the linking of religion and the people in Sri Lanka's ancient chronicle tradition. As we see, according to the Mahavamsa, Sinhalas are specially chosen by the Buddha and their political unity guarantees the survival of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, just as their political identity is guaranteed by their espousal of Buddhism.""

[FOOTNOTEDeVotta200750-4] DeVotta 2007, p. 50.

[5] Razak, Abdul; Imtiyaz, Mohamed (2010-03-09). Politicization of Buddhism and Electoral Politics in Sri Lanka. Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network. p. 36. SSRN 1567618. "The Sinhala-Buddhist worldview has been shaped and reshaped by the myths and the monkish chronicles such as the Mahavamsa, Culavamsa which underscore two crucial issues, the rightful heir of the state (Dhammadipa) and Sri Lanka as the repository of Buddhist message. Both these two issues have shaped the popular psyche and political discourses."

[6] Gier, Nicholas F. (2014-08-20). The Origins of Religious Violence: An Asian Perspective. Lexington Books. p. 47. ISBN 9780739192238. "Buddhist nationalism has its roots in the Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, and Culavamsa, texts unique to Sinhalese Buddhism."

[7] O'Grady, John; May, John D'Arcy; Schüttke-Scherle, Peter (2007-01-01). Ecumenics from the Rim: Explorations in Honour of John D'Arcy May. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 371. ISBN 9783825806378. "The ethnocentric character of Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka, which provides the ideological basis for the present Sinhala Buddhist nationalism, has its roots in the construction of the identity of the Sinhala people as one chosen to safeguard Buddhism. Chosenness here is part of a historical consciousness, mainly supported by post-canonical Pali literature - especially, the Mahavamsa - which, in one of its clauses, justifies killing for the sake of religion."

[8] McGowan, William (2012年8月2日). “Buddhists Behaving Badly”. Foreign Affairs. 2016年2月20日閲覧。 “Militant Buddhism there has its roots in an ancient narrative called the Mahavamsa (Great Chronicle), which was composed by monks in the sixth century.”

[Sen1999-9] Sailendra Nath Sen (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. p. 91. ISBN 978-81-224-1198-0

[FOOTNOTEDeegalle2006138-10] Deegalle 2006, p. 138.

[FOOTNOTEBartholomeusz2005142-11] Bartholomeusz 2005, p. 142.

[FOOTNOTEDeVotta20076-12] DeVotta 2007, p. 6.

[FOOTNOTEBartholomeusz200520-13] Bartholomeusz 2005, p. 20.

[14] McGowan, William (2012年8月2日). “Buddhists Behaving Badly”. Foreign Affairs. 2016年2月20日閲覧。 “The Sinhalese take this as a sign that they are the Buddha's chosen people, commanded to "preserve and protect" Buddhism in its most pristine form.”

[FOOTNOTEDeVotta20077–8-15] DeVotta 2007, pp. 7–8.

[FOOTNOTEDeegalle2006153-16] Deegalle 2006, p. 153.

[17] “Chapter XXV THE VICTORY OF DUTTHAGAMANI”. lakdiva.org. 2016年2月20日閲覧。 “`From this deed arises no hindrance in thy way to heaven. Only one and a half human beings have been slain here by thee, O lord of men. The one had come unto the (three) refuges, the other had taken on himself the five precepts Unbelievers and men of evil life were the rest, not more to be esteemed than beasts. But as for thee, thou wilt bring glory to the doctrine of the Buddha in manifold ways; therefore cast away care from thy heart, O ruler of men!”

[18] Grant, Patrick (2009-01-05). Buddhism and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka. SUNY Press. pp. 48–51. ISBN 9780791493670. ""The campaign against Elara is described at some length in the Mahavamsa, and it is clear that Dutthagamini does not move against Elara because the Tamil king was unjust, cruel, or tyrannical. The Mahavamsa points out that Elara was a good ruler, and, when he is killed, Dutthagamini has him cremated honorably, and erects a monument in his memory. In constructing the "Dutthagamini epic" as he does, Mahanama wants to make clear that the heroic task in hand is not the defeat of injustice but the restoration of Buddhism. The overthrow of the Tamil king is required first and foremost because Sri Lanka cannot be united unless the monarch is Buddhist. [...] The main point is the honor Dutthagamini brings "to the doctrine of the Buddha," and this greater good justifies the violence required to bring it about. [...] Mahanama's [author of the Mahavamsa] lesson for monarchs remains consistent: be as strong as you need to be to maintain the Buddhist state; be supportive of the Sangha and willing to defeat the enemy by force.""

[FOOTNOTEBartholomeusz200550-19] Bartholomeusz 2005, p. 50.

[FOOTNOTEDeVotta20078-20] DeVotta 2007, p. 8.

[21] Sunil, Wijesiriwardhana (2010) Purawasi Manpeth. FLICT. pp. 222–223. ISBN 978-955-1534-16-5

[22] “こころの時代　シリーズ徹底討論７「宗教と政治」宗教は「分断」をもたらすのか - NHKプラス”. 日本放送協会. 2025年7月8日閲覧。

[Haviland-23] Haviland, Charles (2011年9月15日). “S Lanka monks raze Muslim shrine” 2019年10月13日閲覧。

[:02-24] Imtiyaz, A.R.M.; Mohamed-Saleem, Amjad (2015-02-23). “Muslims in post-war Sri Lanka: understanding Sinhala-Buddhist mobilization against them”. Asian Ethnicity 16 (2): 186–202. doi:10.1080/14631369.2015.1003691. ISSN 1463-1369.

[25] “Sri Lanka: Muslims Face Threats, Attacks”. Human Rights Watch (2019年7月3日). 2019年11月2日閲覧。

[26] “International Religious Freedom Report for 2012”. www.state.gov. 2016年2月20日閲覧。 “There were reports of abuses of religious freedom. Although the government publicly endorsed religious freedom, in practice there were problems in some areas. Authorities were reluctant to investigate or prosecute those responsible for attacks on churches, Hindu temples, or mosques. While efforts to pass anti-conversion legislation reportedly declined, some Christian groups occasionally complained that the government tacitly condoned harassment and violence aimed at them. Police generally provided protection for these groups at their request. In some cases, the police response was inadequate and local police officials reportedly were reluctant to take legal action against individuals involved in the attacks.”

[27] “International Religious Freedom Report for 2013”. www.state.gov. 2016年2月20日閲覧。 “There were reports of societal abuses and discrimination based on religious affiliation, belief, or practice. There was an overall decrease in societal respect for religious freedom, as Buddhist nationalist groups led campaigns targeting Muslims and Christians. Buddhist groups attacked churches and mosques.”

[28] “International Religious Freedom Report for 2014”. www.state.gov. 2016年2月20日閲覧。 “"Authorities often did not investigate or prosecute those responsible for attacks on churches, Hindu kovils (temples), and mosques, and protected perpetrators of such violence. At times, local police and government officials appeared to be acting in concert with Buddhist nationalist organizations. Police continued to use a revoked 2011 government circular to coerce unregistered churches to register or be shut down. Eight masked men assaulted the pastor of New Blessing Church in Valaichchenai and his family when they reportedly failed to comply with the "government requirement" to submit a registration letter. In April President Rajapaksa acknowledged for the first time the increase in religiously-motivated violence and established a special religious police unit within the Ministry of Buddha Sasana (doctrine and practice) and Religious Affairs to address complaints. Some religious minorities, however, questioned the sincerity and efficacy of the effort, and the unit took no credible steps during the year to pursue prosecution of perpetrators of violence."”

[29] “Sri Lanka”. U.S. Department of State. 2016年2月20日閲覧。

[30] “Religious Hostilities Reach Six-Year High”. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project (2014年1月14日). 2019年10月14日閲覧。 “In Buddhist-majority Sri Lanka, for example, monks attacked Muslim and Christian places of worship, including reportedly attacking a mosque in the town of Dambulla in April 2012 and forcibly occupying a Seventh-day Adventist church in the town of Deniyaya and converting it into a Buddhist temple in August 2012.”

[31] Haviland, Charles (2011年9月15日). “Sri Lanka Buddhist monks destroy Muslim shrine”. BBC. 2019年10月12日閲覧。 “The monk who led the group told the BBC he did it because the shrine was on land that was given to Sinhalese Buddhists 2,000 years ago.”

[32] “Sri Lanka Muslims decry radical Buddhist mosque attack - BBC News”. BBC News. (2012年4月23日) 2016年2月20日閲覧. ""A Dambulla monk told the BBC that the actions were necessary because Sri Lanka was "the only country to safeguard Buddhism".""

[33] “Bodu Bala Sena, Sri Lanka's Buddhist ultra-nationalists - CNN.com”. CNN (2014年7月18日). 2016年2月20日閲覧。 “The ultra-nationalist Sinhalese Buddhist organization has emerged as a troubling presence on the Sri Lankan political landscape in recent years, and is blamed by many for inciting the deadly violence in Aluthgama.”

[Mohan-34] Mohan, Rohini (2015年1月2日). “Sri Lanka's Violent Buddhists”. The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 2016年2月20日閲覧。

[35] “BBSO challenges Mangala equating it to a terrorist outfit | The Sundaytimes Sri Lanka”. www.sundaytimes.lk. 2016年2月20日閲覧。

[36] “The hardline Buddhists targeting Sri Lanka's Muslims - BBC News”. BBC News. (2013年3月25日) 2016年2月20日閲覧。

[37] McGowan, William (2012年8月2日). “Buddhists Behaving Badly”. Foreign Affairs. 2016年2月20日閲覧。 “Another sign of militant Buddhism's enduring power is the government's refusal to confront the human rights abuses committed in the war's final push. President Rajapaksa, who went to Kandy, the cultural capital, immediately after the 2009 victory to genuflect to the country's top Buddhist clerics, has rejected a UN Human Rights Council resolution, passed in March, that called for an inquiry into humanitarian abuses and possible war crimes. Only recently did the Rajapaksa government concede that there were any civilian casualties at all. In fact, as the UNHRC voted on the March resolution, hundreds of Buddhist monks led a prayer vigil in Colombo against it. Hundreds more led protests when it passed.”

[ST170213-38] Bandara, Hansani (2013年2月17日). “BBSO challenges Mangala equating it to a terrorist outfit”. The Sunday Times (Sri Lanka)

[DFT150213-39] Bastians, Dharisha (2013年2月15日). “Mangala says anti-Muslim campaign is 'playing with fire'”. Daily FT. オリジナルの2015年12月8日時点におけるアーカイブ。 2015年10月18日閲覧。

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シンハラ仏教ナショナリズムとは？わかりやすく解説