界 (分類学)とは? わかりやすく解説

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界 (分類学)

(Kingdom (biology) から転送)

出典: フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア(Wikipedia)』 (2024/05/06 02:00 UTC 版)

(かい、: kingdom: regnum)は、生物学におけるドメインに次いで2番目に高い分類階級である。界はと呼ばれるより小さなグループに分けられる。


  1. ^ キャバリエ=スミスが2004年に発表したバージョンと比較すると、アルベオラータリザリアは原生動物界からクロミスタ界に移動している。
  2. ^ monophyletic (彼の用語では完系統(holophyletic))
  3. ^ paraphyla(したがって、彼がこの用語を使う意味では単系統(monophyletic))
  1. ^ High School Biology (PDF Version (Part 2))”. CK-12 Foundation. pp. 696-697. 2024年4月28日閲覧。
  2. ^ 高等学校生物/生物II/生物の系統”. ウィキメディア財団. 2024年4月28日閲覧。
  3. ^ IUCN SSC acceptance of Fauna Flora Funga”. Fungal Conservation Committee, IUCN SSC (2021年). 2021年11月11日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2022年3月4日閲覧。 “The IUCN Species Survival Commission calls for the due recognition of fungi as major components of biodiversity in legislation and policy. It fully endorses the Fauna Flora Funga Initiative and asks that the phrases animals and plants and fauna and flora be replaced with animals, fungi, and plants and fauna, flora, and funga.”
  4. ^ Re:wild and IUCN SSC become first global organizations to call for the recognition of fungi as one of three kingdoms of life critical to protecting and restoring Earth”. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (2021年8月3日). 2022年3月4日閲覧。
  5. ^ Linnaeus, C. (1735). Systemae Naturae, sive regna tria naturae, systematics proposita per classes, ordines, genera & species 
  6. ^ See e.g. McNeill, J.; et al., eds. (2006). International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Vienna Code) adopted by the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress, Vienna, Austria, July 2005 (electronic ed.). Vienna: International Association for Plant Taxonomy. 2012年10月6日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2011年2月20日閲覧, article 3.1”. 2012年10月3日閲覧。
  7. ^ Cavalier-Smith, T. (1998). “A revised six-kingdom system of life”. Biological Reviews 73 (3): 203–66. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x. PMID 9809012. http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=685. 
  8. ^ Singer, Charles J. (1931). A short history of biology, a general introduction to the study of living things. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC 1197036 
  9. ^ a b c d Scamardella, Joseph M. (1999). “Not plants or animals: a brief history of the origin of Kingdoms Protozoa, Protista and Protoctista”. International Microbiology 2 (4): 207–16. PMID 10943416. 
  10. ^ a b c Sapp, J. (2005). “The Prokaryote-Eukaryote Dichotomy: Meanings and Mythology”. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 69 (2): 292–305. doi:10.1128/MMBR.69.2.292-305.2005. PMC 1197417. PMID 15944457. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1197417/. 
  11. ^ a b Scamardella, Joseph M. (1999). “Not plants or animals: a brief history of the origin of Kingdoms Protozoa, Protista and Protoctista”. International Microbiology 2 (4): 207–16. PMID 10943416. 
  12. ^ Stanier, R.Y. & Van Neil, C.B. (1962). “The concept of a bacterium”. Archiv für Mikrobiologie 42 (1): 17–35. doi:10.1007/BF00425185. PMID 13916221. 
  13. ^ a b c Whittaker, R.H. (January 1969). “New concepts of kingdoms or organisms. Evolutionary relations are better represented by new classifications than by the traditional two kingdoms”. Science 163 (3863): 150–60. Bibcode1969Sci...163..150W. doi:10.1126/science.163.3863.150. PMID 5762760. 
  14. ^ Margulis, Lynn; Chapman, Michael J. (2009-03-19). Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth. Academic Press. ISBN 9780080920146. https://books.google.com/books?id=9IWaqAOGyt4C 
  15. ^ a b Case, Emily (2008-10-01). “Teaching Taxonomy: How Many Kingdoms?” (英語). American Biology Teacher 70 (8): 472–477. doi:10.2307/30163328. JSTOR 30163328. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ813862 2020年7月28日閲覧。. 
  16. ^ Palmer, E. Laurence; Fowler, Seymour H. (January 1975). Fieldbook of Natural History (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-070-48425-2. https://archive.org/details/fieldbookofnatur00palm 
  17. ^ a b Balch, W.E.; Magrum, L.J.; Fox, G.E.; Wolfe, C.R. & Woese, C.R. (August 1977). “An ancient divergence among the bacteria”. Journal of Molecular Evolution 9 (4): 305–311. Bibcode1977JMolE...9..305B. doi:10.1007/BF01796092. PMID 408502. 
  18. ^ a b Woese, C.R.; Kandler, O.; Wheelis, M.L. (1990). “Towards a natural systs: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 87 (12): 4576–9. Bibcode1990PNAS...87.4576W. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576. PMC 54159. PMID 2112744. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC54159/. 
  19. ^ The Six Kingdoms”. www.ric.edu. Rhode Island College. 2020年7月25日閲覧。
  20. ^ a b c Ruggiero, Michael A.; Gordon, Dennis P.; Orrell, Thomas M.; Bailly, Nicolas; Bourgoin, Thierry; Brusca, Richard C.; Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Guiry, Michael D. et al. (2015). “A higher level classification of all living organisms”. PLOS ONE 10 (4): e0119248. Bibcode2015PLoSO..1019248R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0119248. PMC 4418965. PMID 25923521. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4418965/. 
  21. ^ Cavalier-Smith, Thomas (March 26, 1987). “Eucaryotes with no mitochondria”. Nature 326 (6111): 332–333. Bibcode1987Natur.326..332C. doi:10.1038/326332a0. PMID 3561476. 
  22. ^ Poole, Anthony; Penny, David (21 June 2007). “Engulfed by speculation”. Nature 447 (7147): 913. doi:10.1038/447913a. PMID 17581566. オリジナルの6 July 2011時点におけるアーカイブ。. https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162409/http://www.cecm.usp.br/~cewinter/aulas/artigos/2007/eukarya_orig.pdf 2011年3月15日閲覧。. 
  23. ^ a b c Cavalier-Smith, T. (1998). “A revised six-kingdom system of life”. Biological Reviews 73 (3): 203–66. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x. PMID 9809012. http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=685. 
  24. ^ a b Cavalier-Smith, Thomas (2009). “Kingdoms Protozoa and Chromista and the eozoan root of the eukaryotic tree”. Biology Letters 6 (3): 342–345. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0948. PMC 2880060. PMID 20031978. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2880060/. 
  25. ^ Cavalier-Smith, T. (2004). “Only six kingdoms of life”. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 271 (1545): 1251–1262. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2705. PMC 1691724. PMID 15306349. http://www.cladocera.de/protozoa/cavalier-smith_2004_prs.pdf 2010年4月29日閲覧。. 
  26. ^ a b Dagan, T.; Roettger, M.; Bryant & Martin, W. (2010). “Genome Networks Root the Tree of Life between Prokaryotic Domains”. Genome Biology and Evolution 2: 379–92. doi:10.1093/gbe/evq025. PMC 2997548. PMID 20624742. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2997548/. 
  27. ^ Linnaeus, C. (1735). Systemae Naturae, sive regna tria naturae, systematics proposita per classes, ordines, genera & species 
  28. ^ Haeckel, E. (1866). Generelle Morphologie der Organismen. Reimer, Berlin 
  29. ^ Chatton, É. (1925). Pansporella perplexa. Réflexions sur la biologie et la phylogénie des protozoaires”. Annales des Sciences Naturelles - Zoologie et Biologie Animale 10-VIII: 5–84. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k55415433/f8. 
  30. ^ Chatton, É. (1937). Titres et Travaux Scientifiques (1906–1937). E. Sottano, Sète, France 
  31. ^ Copeland, H.F. (1938). “The kingdoms of organisms”. Quarterly Review of Biology 13 (4): 383–420. doi:10.1086/394568. 
  32. ^ Copeland, H.F. (1956). The Classification of Lower Organisms. Palo Alto: Pacific Books. p. 6. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.4474. https://archive.org/stream/classificationof00cope#page/6/mode/2up 
  33. ^ Whittaker, R.H. (January 1969). “New concepts of kingdoms of organisms”. Science 163 (3863): 150–160. Bibcode1969Sci...163..150W. doi:10.1126/science.163.3863.150. PMID 5762760. 
  34. ^ Woese, C.R.; Balch, W.E.; Magrum, L.J.; Fox, G.E.; Wolfe, R.S. (August 1977). “An ancient divergence among the bacteria”. Journal of Molecular Evolution 9 (4): 305–311. Bibcode1977JMolE...9..305B. doi:10.1007/BF01796092. PMID 408502. 
  35. ^ Woese, C.R.; Fox, G.E. (November 1977). “Phylogenetic structure of the prokaryotic domain: the primary kingdoms”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 74 (11): 5088–5090. Bibcode1977PNAS...74.5088W. doi:10.1073/pnas.74.11.5088. PMC 432104. PMID 270744. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC432104/. 
  36. ^ Woese, C.; Kandler, O.; Wheelis, M. (1990). “Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya.”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 87 (12): 4576–4579. Bibcode1990PNAS...87.4576W. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576. PMC 54159. PMID 2112744. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC54159/. 
  37. ^ Cavalier-Smith, T. (1981). “Eukaryote kingdoms: Seven or nine?”. Bio Systems 14 (3–4): 461–481. doi:10.1016/0303-2647(81)90050-2. PMID 7337818. 
  38. ^ Cavalier-Smith, T. (1992). “Origins of secondary metabolism”. Ciba Foundation Symposium. Novartis Foundation Symposia 171: 64–80; discussion 80–7. doi:10.1002/9780470514344.ch5. ISBN 9780470514344. PMID 1302186. 
  39. ^ Cavalier-Smith, T. (1993). “Kingdom protozoa and its 18 phyla”. Microbiological Reviews 57 (4): 953–994. doi:10.1128/mmbr.57.4.953-994.1993. PMC 372943. PMID 8302218. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC372943/. 
  40. ^ Cavalier-Smith, T. (1998). “A revised six-kingdom system of life”. Biological Reviews 73 (3): 203–266. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x. PMID 9809012. http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=685. 
  41. ^ Cavalier-Smith, T. (2004). “Only six kingdoms of life”. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 271 (1545): 1251–1262. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2705. PMC 1691724. PMID 15306349. http://www.cladocera.de/protozoa/cavalier-smith_2004_prs.pdf 2010年4月29日閲覧。. 
  42. ^ Cavalier-Smith, T. (June 2010). “Kingdoms Protozoa and Chromista and the eozoan root of the eukaryotic tree”. Biol. Lett. 6 (3): 342–345. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0948. PMC 2880060. PMID 20031978. http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=20031978. 
  43. ^ Ruggiero, Michael A.; Gordon, Dennis P.; Orrell, Thomas M.; Bailly, Nicolas; Bourgoin, Thierry; Brusca, Richard C.; Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Guiry, Michael D. et al. (2015). “A higher level classification of all living organisms”. PLOS ONE 10 (4): e0119248. Bibcode2015PLoSO..1019248R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0119248. PMC 4418965. PMID 25923521. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4418965/. 
  44. ^ Roger, A.J. & Simpson, A.G.B. (2009). “Evolution: Revisiting the Root of the Eukaryote Tree”. Current Biology 19 (4): R165–7. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.12.032. PMID 19243692. 
  45. ^ a b c d Simpson, Alastair G.B.; Roger, Andrew J. (2004). “The real 'kingdoms' of eukaryotes”. Current Biology 14 (17): R693–R696. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2004.08.038. PMID 15341755. 
  46. ^ Moore, R.T. (1974). “Proposal for the recognition of super ranks”. Taxon 23 (4): 650–652. doi:10.2307/1218807. JSTOR 1218807. http://www.iapt-taxon.org/historic/Congress/IBC_1975/Prop034bis-037.pdf. 
  47. ^ Luketa, S. (2012). “New views on the megaclassification of life”. Protistology 7 (4): 218–237. http://protistology.ifmo.ru/num7_4/luketa_protistology_7-4.pdf. 
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  49. ^ Harper, J. T.; Waanders, E. & Keeling, P. J. (2005). “On the monophyly of chromalveolates using a six-protein phylogeny of eukaryotes”. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 55 (Pt 1): 487–496. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.63216-0. PMID 15653923. 
  50. ^ Parfrey, Laura W.; Barbero, Erika; Lasser, Elyse; Dunthorn, Micah; Bhattacharya, Debashish; Patterson, David J. & Katz, Laura A. (2006). “Evaluating support for the current classification of eukaryotic diversity”. PLOS Genetics 2 (12): e220. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020220. PMC 1713255. PMID 17194223. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1713255/. 
  51. ^ Burki et al. 2007, p. 4
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  53. ^ a b Burki, Fabien; Shalchian-Tabrizi, Kamran & Pawlowski, Jan (2008). “Phylogenomics reveals a new 'megagroup' including most photosynthetic eukaryotes”. Biology Letters 4 (4): 366–369. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2008.0224. PMC 2610160. PMID 18522922. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2610160/. 
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