Skip to main content
Springer Nature Link
Log in
Menu
Find a journal Publish with us Track your research
Search
Cart
  1. Home
  2. Canadian Anaesthetists’ Society Journal
  3. Article

Anaesthetic considerations for microsurgical repair of limbs

  • Review Article
  • Published: January 1984
  • Volume 31, pages 51–60, (1984)
  • Cite this article
Download PDF
Canadian Anaesthetists’ Society Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript
Anaesthetic considerations for microsurgical repair of limbs
Download PDF
  • T. M. Bird1 &
  • Leo Strunin1 
  • 793 Accesses

  • 3 Altmetric

  • Explore all metrics

Abstract

With the advent of surgery under the operating microscope microvascular surgical techniques requiring prolonged anaesthesia have greatly increased in number. Local anaesthetic techniques, whilst often producing excellent surgical conditions, are limited by the duration of action of the anaesthetic agents and by the ability of the patient to remain still, often in uncomfortable positions, for periods of up to twenty hours. The use of indwelling catheters as a means of prolonging the duration of nerve blocks is discussed along with methods of sedation or general anaesthesia to enable the patient to tolerate lengthy surgical intervention. Present general anaesthetic techniques may not be ideally suited to long surgical procedures. The problems and possible alternatives are discussed.

Sympathetic ganglion blockade, intravenous regional blockade and systemic vasodilator therapy are discussed as a means of improving the success rate of these procedures.

The general principles of patient management such as fluid balance, temperature control, patient positioning and control of the operating room environment assume a much greater significance when related to the provision of prolonged general anaesthesia, whilst the effect of extended periods of work on operating personnel must also be considered.

Résumé

Avec la venue de la microchirurgie pour la réparation des vaisseaux, des anesthésies prolongées sont de plus en plus fréquentes.

Les techniques d’anesthésie loco-régionale, bien que produisant d’excellentes conditions chirurgicales, sont limitées à cause de la durée d’action des agents employés et par l’impossibilité pour le patient de rester calme, sans bouger dans des positions souvent incommodes, pour des périodes pouvant aller jusqu à vingt heures. On discute de l’utilisation de cathéters pour prolonger le bloc nerveux et de méthodes de sédation ou d’anesthésie générale qui permettent au patient de tolérer ces longues interventions chirurgicales. Les techniques anesthésî-ques habituelles ne sont pas conçues pour de longues opérations; les problèmes posés et les solutions possibles sont discutés.

On discute de l’intérêt du bloc sympathique, du bloc intraveineux et des vasodilatateurs systémiques comme moyen d’améliorer le taux de succès de ces interventions. Des facteurs comme l’équilibre hydrique, le contrôle thermique, la position du patient et le contrôle de l’environnement de la salle d’opération acquièrent une importance accrue lors de ces anesthésies prolongées.

On doit également tenir compte de l’effet de fatigue sur le personnel de ces longues heures de travail.

Article PDF

Download to read the full article text

Similar content being viewed by others

Anaesthesia for Upper Limb Surgery

Chapter © 2019

Approach and Troubleshooting to Lower Limb Blocks

Chapter © 2024

Serious Complications of Regional Anaesthesia

Chapter © 2022

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles and news from researchers in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.
  • Local Anesthesia
  • General Anesthesia
  • Procedures in Anesthesiology
  • Regional Anesthesia
  • Special Anesthesia
  • Anaesthetic
Use our pre-submission checklist

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

References

  1. Gibson T. Early free grafting: the restitution of parts completely severed from the body. Br J Plast Surg 1965; 18: 1–11.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Jacobson JG, Suarez EL. Microsurgery in the anastomosis of small vessels. Surg Forum 1960; 11: 243–5.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Morrison WA, O’Brien BM, Macleod AM. Evaluation of digital replantation; a review of 100 cases. Orth Clin North Am 1977; 8: 295–308.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Harii K, Ohmori K, Ohmori S. Hair transplantation with free-skin grafts. Plast Reconstr Surg 1974; 53: 410–13.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Cooney WP, Wood MB. Microvascular surgery and limb replantation. Peripheral vascular diseases p. 893, Eds.Juergens, J.L., Spittell, J.L. andFairbaim, J.F. W.B. Saunders Co. Philadelphia 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Phelps DB, Lilla JA, Boswick JA, Common problems in clinical replantation and revascularisation in the upper extremity. Clin Orth Rel Res 1978; 133: 11–25.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Phelps DB, Rutherford RB, Boswick JA. Control of vasospasm following trauma and microvascular surgery. J Hand Surg 1979; 4: 109–17.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Matsuda M, Kato N, Hosoi M. Continuous brachial plexus block for replantation in the upper extremity. The Hand 1982; 14: 129–134.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Ansbro FP. A method of continuous brachial plexus block. Am J Surg 1946; 71: 716–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Woolley EJ, Vandam LD, Neurological sequelae of brachial plexus nerve block. Ann. Surg. 1959; 149: 53–60.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. De Krey JA, Schroeder CF, Buechel DR. Continuous brachial plexus block. Anesthesiology 1969; 30: 332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Manriquez RG, Pallares V. Continuous brachial plexus block for prolonged sympathectomy and control of pain, Anesth Analg 1978; 57: 28–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Sada T, Kobayashi T, Murakami S. Continuous axillary plexus block. Can Anaesth Soc J 1983; 30: 201–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Selander D, Edshage S, Wolff T. Paraesthesiae or no paraesthesiae? Nerve lesions after axillary blocks. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1979; 23: 27–33.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Barutell C, Vidal F, Raich M, Montero A. A neurological complication following interscalene brachial plexus block. Anaesthesia 1980; 35: 365–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Selander D, Dhuner K-G, Lundborg G. Peripheral nerve injury due to injection needles used for regional anaesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1977; 21: 182–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Merrill DG, Brodsky JB, Mentz RV. Vascular insufficiency following axillary block of the brachial plexus. Anesth Analg 1981; 60: 162–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Selander D, Brattsand R, Lundborg G, Nordborg C, Qlsson Y. Local anaesthetics: importance of mode of application, concentration and adrenaline for the appearance of nerve lesions. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1979; 23: 127–36.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. McClure JM, Scott DB. Comparison of bupivacaine hydrochloride and carbonated bupivicaine in brachial plexus block by the interscalene technique. Br J Anaesth 1981;53:523–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Winnie AP, Ramamurthy S, Durrani Z. The inguinal perivascular technic of lumbar plexus anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1973; 52: 989–96.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Winnie AP, Ramamurthy S, Durrani Z, Radonjic R. Plexus blocks for lower extremity surgery. Anes-thesiology. Rev. 1974; 1: 11–16.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Ware RJ. Intravenous regional anaesthesia using bupivicaine. Anaesthesia 1975; 30: 817–22.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Magora F, Stern L, Zytber-Kratz E, Oshwang D, Donchin Y, Magora A. Prolonged effect of bupivicaine hydrochloride after cuff release in i.v. regional anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1980; 52: 1131–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Heath ML. Deaths after intravenous anaesthesia. Editorial. Br Med J 1982; 285: 913–4.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Wildsmith JAW, Scott DHT, Brown DT, Intravenous anaesthesia with bupivacaine. Anaesthesia 1979; 34: 919–20.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Rosenberg PH, Kalso EA, Tuominen MK, Linden HR. Acute bupivacaine toxicity as a result of venous leakage under the tourniquet cuff during a Bier block. Anesthesiology 1983; 58: 95–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Holland AJC, Davies KH, Wallace DH. Sympathetic blockade of isolated limbs by intravenous guanethidine. Can Anaesth Soc J 1977; 24: 597–602.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Ausinsh B, Malagodi MH, Munson ES. Diazepam in the prophylaxis of lidocaine seizure. Br J Anaesth 1976; 48: 309–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Tomlin PJ, Gjessing J. Balanced regional anaesthesia - an hypothesis. Can Anaesth Soc J 1978; 25: 412–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Lassen HC A, Henriksen E, Neukirch F, Kirstensen HSK. Treatment of tetanus: severe bone-marrow depression after prolonged nitrous oxide anaesthesia. Lancet 1956; (i):527–300.

  31. Amess JAL, Rees GM, Burman JF, Nanckievill DG, Mollin DL. Megaloblastic haemopoiesis in patients receiving nitrous oxide. Lancet 1978; (i):339–422.

  32. Amos RJ, Amess JAL, Hinds CJ, Mollin DL. Incidence and pathogenesis of acute megaloblastic bone-marrow change in patients receiving intensive care. Lancet 1982; (ii):835–99.

  33. Cohen EN, Brown BW, Wu ML. Occupational disease in dentistry and chronic exposure to trace anesthetic gases, J Am Dent Ass 1980; 101: 21–31.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Layser RB, Myeloneuropathy after prolonged exposure to nitrous oxide. Lancet 1978; (ii); 1227–30,

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Blackburn R, Kyaw M, Swallow AJ. Reaction of cob(I)alamin with nitrous oxide and cob(III)alamin. J Chern Soc Faraday Trans 1977; 73: 250–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. O’Sullivan H, Jennings F, Ward K, McCann S, Scott JM, Weir DG. Human bone-marrow biochemical function and megaloblastic hematopoiesis after nitrous oxide anaesthesia. Anesthesiology 1981; 55: 645–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Cascorbi HF, Blake DA, Meirich M. Differences in biotransformation of halothane in man. Anesthesiology 1970; 32: 119–23.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Chase RE, Holaday DA, Fiserova-Bergerova V, Saidman LJ, Mack FE. The biotransformation of Ethrane in man. Anesthesiology 1971; 35: 262–73.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Holaday DA, Fiserova-Bergerova V, Latto IP, Zum-biel MA. Resistance of isoflurane to biotransformation in man. Anesthesiology 1975; 43: 325–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Van Dyke RA. Hepatic centrilobular necrosis in rats after exposure to halothane, enflurane or isoflurane. Anesth Analg 1982; 61: 812–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Widger LA,Gandolfi AJ ,Van Dyke RA. Hypoxia and halothane metabolism in vivo: release of inorganic fluoride and halothane metabolite binding to cellular constituents. Anesthesiology 1976; 44: 197–201.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Maze RI, Shue GL, Jackson SH, Renal dysfunction associated with methoxyflurane anaesthesia. JAMA 1971; 216: 278–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Bentley JB, Vaughan RW, Miller MS, Calkins JM, Gandolfi AJ. Serum inorganic fluoride levels in obese patients during and after enflurane anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1979; 58: 409–12.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Mane RI, Cousins MJ, Barr GA, Renal effects and metabolism of isofturane in man. Anesthesiology 40: 536–42.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Eger EI. Isoflurane: a review. Anesthesiology 1981; 55: 559–76.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Towler CM, Garrett RT, Sear JW. Althesin infusions for the maintenance of anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1982; 37: 428–38,

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Lees NW, Glasser J, McGroarty FJ, Miller BM. Etomidate and fentanyl for maintenance of anaesthesia, Br J Anaesth 1981; 53: 959–61.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Edbrooke DL, Newby DM, Mather SJ, Dixon AM, Hebron BS. Safter sedation for ventilated patients: a new application for etomidate. Anaesthesia 1982; 37: 765–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Hendry JGB, Miller BM, Lees AW. Etomidate in a new solvent. Anaesthesia 1977; 32: 996–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Gooding JM, Weng JT, Smith RA, Benninger GT, Kirby RB. Cardiovascular and pulmonary responses following etomidate induction of anaesthesia in patients with demonstrated cardiac disease. Anesth Analg 1979; 58: 40–1.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Lilburn JK, Dundee JW, Moore J. Ketamine infusions: observations on technique, dosage and cardiovascular effects Anaesthesia 1978; 33: 315–21.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Dundee JW, Wyant GM. Intravenous anaesthesia. 1st Ed. Edinburgh and London. Churchill Livingstone. 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Houlton PJC, Downing JW, Brock-Utne JG. Intravenous ketamine anaesthesia for major abdominal surgery - an assessment of a technique and the influence of ataractic drugs on the psychomimetic effects of ketamine. Anaesth Intensive Care 1978; 6: 222–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Dundee JW, Fee JPM, Moore PJ, Mcllroy PDA, Wilson DB. Changes in serum enzymes following ketamine infusions. Anaesthesia 1980; 35: 12–16,

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Ledingham IMcA, Watt I. (corr). Influence of sedation on mortality in critically ill multiple trauma patients. Lancet 1983; (1)8336: 1270.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Lawler PGP, McHutcheonA, Bomber PA, Potential hazards of prolonged steroid anaesthesia. Lancet 1983; (1)8336:1270–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Wright PJ, Dundee JW. Attitudes to intravenous infusion anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1982; 37: 1209–13,

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Aarts HF. Regional intravascular sympathetic blockade for better results in flap surgery: an experimental study of free-flaps, island flaps and pedicle flaps in the rabbit ear. Plast Reconstr Surg 1980; 68: 690–8.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Walker AJ, Lynn RB, Barcroft H, On the circulatory changes in the hand and foot after sympathectomy. St. Thomas’s Hosp 1950; 6: 18.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Boas RA. Sympathetic blocks in clinical practice. Int Anesth Clin 1978; 16(4):149–822.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Eriksen S. Duration of sympathetic block. Anaesthesia 1981; 36: 768–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Holland AJC, Davies KH, Wallace DH. Sympathetic blockade of isolated limbs by intravenous guan-ethidine. Can Anaesth Soc J 1977; 24: 597–602.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Finseth F. Clinical salvage of three skin flaps by treatment with a vasodilator drug. Plast Reconstr Surg 1979; 63: 304–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Toremalm NG, Airflow patterns and ciliary activity in the trachea after nacheostomy. Acta Otolaryngol 1961; 53: 442–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Burton JDK. Effects of dry anaesthetic gases on the respiratory mucous membrane. Lancet 1962; (i): 235-8. 66 Annis P, Landa JF, Lichtiger M. Effects of atropine on the velocity of tracheal mucous in anesthet- ised patients. Anesthesiology 1976; 44: 74–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Chalon J, Loew DAY, Malebronch J. Effects of dry anesthetic gases on tracheo-bronchial ciliated epithelium. Anesthesiology 1972; 37: 338–43.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Forbes AR. Humidification and mucous flow in the intubated trachea. Br J Anaesth 1974; 46: 24–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Hayes B. Editorial: humidification in anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1979; 51: 389–90.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Chalon J, Ali, Ramanathan S, Turndorf M. The humidification of anaesthetic gases: its importance and control. Can Anaesth Soc J 1979; 26: 361–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Pierce AK, Robertson J. Pulmonary complications of general surgery. Ann Rev Med 1977; 28: 211–21.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Pflug AE, Aasheim GM, Foster C, Martin RW. Prevention of postoperative shivering. Can Anaesth Soc J 1978; 25: 43–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Tausk HC, Miller R, Roberts RB. Maintenance of body temperature by heated humidification. Anesth Analg 1976; 55: 719–23.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Stone DR, Downs JB, Paul WL, Perkins HM. Adult body temperature and heated humidification of anesthetic gases during general anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1981; 60: 736–41.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Horvath SM, Spun GB, Butt BK, Hamilton LH. Metabolic cost of shivering. J Appl Physiol 1956; 8: 595–602.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Holdcroft A, Hall GM. Heat loss during anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1978; 50: 157–64.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Radford P, Thurlow AC. Metallised plastic sheeting in the prevention of hypothermia during neuro-surgery. Br J Anaesth 1979; 51: 237–40.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Hall GM. Temperature and anaesthesia. Editorial. Br J Anaesth 1978; 50: 39–44,

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Morris RH, Kumar A. The effect of warming blankets on the maintenance of the anesthetised, paralysed adult patient. Anesthesiology 36: 408–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Dinsdale SM. Decubitus ulcers: role of pressure and friction in causation. Arch Phys Med Rehab 1974; 55: 147–52.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Harmon JW. Significance of local vascular phenomena in the producton of ischemic necrosis in skeletal muscle. Am J Path 1948; 24: 625–41.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Daniel RK, Priest DL, Wheatley DC. Etiological factors in pressure sores: an experimental model. Arch Phys Med Rehab 1981; 62: 492–8.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Garfin SR, Pye SA, Hargens AR, Akeson WH, Surface pressure distribution of the human body in the recumbent position. Arch Phys Med Rehab 1980; 61: 409–13. 84 Bruce DL, Behbahani P, Land PC. Lymphocyte reactivity of surgical patients. (Abstract) International Anesthetic Research Society. March 1976.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Walton B. Effects of anaesthesia and surgery on immune status. Br J Anaesth 1979; 51: 37–41.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Moudgil GC, Allan RB, Russell RJ, Wilkinson PC. Inhibition by anaesthetic agents of human leucocyte locomotion towards chemical attractants. Br J Anaesth 1977; 49: 97–105.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Paget NS, Lambert TF, Sridnar K. Factors affecting an anaesthetist’s work: some findings on vigilance and performance. Anaesth Intensive Care 1981; 9: 359–65.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Kortilla K, Pfaffli P, Linnoila M, Blomgren E, Han-ninen H, Hakkinen S. Operating room nurse psycho-motor and driving skills after exposure to halothane and nitrous oxide. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1978; 22: 33–9.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Bruce DL, Bach MJ, Arbit J. Trace anaesthetic effects on perceptual, cognitive and motor skills. Anesthesiology 1974; 50: 453–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Bruce DL, Bach MJ. Effects of trace anaesthetic gases on behavioural performance of volunteers. BrJ Anaesth 1976; 48: 871–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Anaesthesia, Foothills Hospital, University of Calgary, 1403-29th Street N.W., T2N 2T9, Calgary, Alberta, Canada

    T. M. Bird & Leo Strunin

Authors
  1. T. M. Bird
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar

  2. Leo Strunin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bird, T.M., Strunin, L. Anaesthetic considerations for microsurgical repair of limbs. Can Anaesth Soc J 31, 51–60 (1984). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03011483

Download citation

  • Issue Date: January 1984

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03011483

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Key words

  • anaesthetic techniques
  • regional
  • general
  • inhalation
  • intravenous
Use our pre-submission checklist

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Advertisement

Search

Navigation

  • Find a journal
  • Publish with us
  • Track your research

Discover content

  • Journals A-Z
  • Books A-Z

Publish with us

  • Journal finder
  • Publish your research
  • Open access publishing

Products and services

  • Our products
  • Librarians
  • Societies
  • Partners and advertisers

Our brands

  • Springer
  • Nature Portfolio
  • BMC
  • Palgrave Macmillan
  • Apress
  • Discover
  • Your US state privacy rights
  • Accessibility statement
  • Terms and conditions
  • Privacy policy
  • Help and support
  • Legal notice
  • Cancel contracts here

18.220.47.242

Not affiliated

Springer Nature

© 2025 Springer Nature