The effect of wind turbine noise on sleep and quality of life: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies
Introduction
The last few decades have seen governments attempting to decrease greenhouse gas emissions (Olander et al., 2012). This response – to changes in the earth's temperature – has seen the rise of wind power (Leithead, 2007). This alternative energy source, generated by wind turbines, is one tool being employed to generate cleaner energy.
Wind turbine generators (WTGs) are devices that convert wind power into kinetic energy, and are regarded as one of the most important renewable sources of power (Leithead, 2007). Energy generated from WTGs can be used to produce electricity and drive machinery (Caduff et al., 2012, Chang Chien et al., 2011, Li and Chen, 2008). It is thought that large scale utilization of these devices can improve global climate by extracting energy from the atmosphere and altering the pattern of gaseous flow in the earth's atmosphere (Keith et al., 2004).
More recently, exposure to noise from WTGs has been reported to have negative effects on human health (Jeffery et al., 2013). People living near WTGs have reportedly experienced sleep disturbances and a reduction in the quality of life; it has been suggested that a combination of turbine noise, infrasound (sounds with frequency < 20 Hz) and ground currents (stray current from electrical equipment which passes through the earth) could be responsible for these symptoms (Havas and Colling, 2011). Cases of litigation because of the unwanted health effects allegedly caused by the noise from WTGs have been reported both in the UK (Daily Mail, 2011) and the US (Oregon Herald, 2013). Very recently, the UK parliament passed a bill restricting the number, height and location of WTGs in England (UK House of Commons Library, 2015).
Studies investigating the effects of wind turbines on sleep and quality of life in individuals living in their proximity have been conducted. While the findings from a pooled meta-analyses of three studies suggested a relationship between exposure to WTG noise and annoyance (Janssen et al., 2011), a more recent review concluded that there was no evidence of a consistent relationship between WTG noise and adverse health effects (Merlin et al., 2013). Therefore, the objective of this systematic review was to explore the association between wind turbine noise, annoyance, sleep and quality of life, and also explore the influence of other moderating factors on these outcomes, using data from published observational studies.
Section snippets
Methods
We conducted electronic searches in the following databases: Medline, Embase and Global health. Each database was searched from inception till June 2014. MeSH terms used included wind turbine, wind energy, clean energy, annoyance, sleep, and quality of life (a MEDLINE search strategy is included as a web Appendix 1). We also searched Google Scholar for relevant conference proceedings, and hand searched the bibliography of retrieved full texts. An updated search of the databases was conducted on
Results
Our electronic searches returned 148 non-duplicate citations, out of which 18 potentially eligible articles were identified (Fig. 1). One article (Ambrose et al., 2012) was excluded because the study was conducted in only one residential apartment and another two (Maffei et al., 2013, Van Renterghem et al., 2013) because they were virtual experimental studies conducted in subjects not residing within the vicinity of WTGs. Two articles (Verheijen et al., 2011, Pedersen and Larsman, 2008) were
Discussion
Our results provide evidence that living in areas with WTGs appears to result in “annoyance”, and may also be associated with sleep disturbances and decreased quality of life. The results of included studies also suggest that visual perception of WTGs is correlated with increased episodes of annoyance, and the reported adverse effects from WTGs are more prominent in quiet areas compared with noisy ones. The results of our meta-analysis corroborate the findings of a previous meta-analysis of
Strengths and limitations
The strengths of this systematic review and meta-analysis are the use of a robust search strategy to identify relevant studies, and our success with obtaining additional data through contact with investigators of studies that we included in the review. The overall quality of the evidence from the included studies was moderate. In addition, heterogeneity was reduced in most of our sensitivity and subgroup analyses, and the results of these analyses were also consistent with overall analyses.
Conclusion
The evidence from cross-sectional studies suggests that exposure to wind turbine noise may be associated with increased frequency of annoyance and sleep problems. Evidence also suggests that living in proximity to WTGs could be associated with changes in the quality of life. Individual attitudes could influence the type of response to noise from WTGs.
Authors' contribution
IJO and JOS were involved with protocol design, data extraction, data-analysis and interpretation, and co-drafting of the manuscript. MJT was involved with data-analysis and interpretation, and co-drafting of the manuscript. CJH was involved with protocol design, data analysis and interpretation, and co-drafting of the manuscript.
Funding
None.
Competing interest
Professor Heneghan has received payment for running educational courses at the University of Oxford and for external teaching and training. He also receives royalties for books (Evidence Based Toolkit series by Blackwell BMJ Books). Dr Onakpoya, Dr O'Sullivan and Prof. Thompson have no interests to disclose.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank James Shepherd, Carmen Krogh and Shannon Magari for providing additional information and clarification on their studies.
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