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Questions & answers
on everyday scientific phenomena |
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Humdrum hums |
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Question |
Electricity is
supposed to be the "silent servant". So why do
transformers hum?
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D. J. Priestley ,
University of Wales Swansea, UK |
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Answers |
Transformer hum is
caused by a phenomenon known as magnetostriction. To understand
why, it is necessary to take a look at how transformers work.
Inside they
contain two coils of wire, the primary and the secondary coils,
wound onto opposite sides of a ring made out of many thin sheets
of iron or some other ferromagnetic material.
An alternating
current flowing through the primary coil generates an alternating
magnetic field in the iron ring, which in turn creates a voltage
in the secondary coil. The ratio of the primary voltage to the
secondary voltage is equal to the ratio of the number of turns of
wire in the primary coil to the number of turns in the secondary.
This allows us to change the hundreds of thousands of volts
running through overhead power lines to a voltage low enough to be
safe to use in our homes.
The iron making up
the ring that joins the primary and secondary coils is divided
into microscopic domains. In each of these domains, the magnetic
field points haphazardly in different directions, much like a
classroom full of unruly pupils who are running all over the
place.
However, when the
iron is placed in an external magnetic field, these domains tend
to line up and add together, producing a strong magnetic field
pointing in one direction, just as schoolchildren will snap to
attention at a teacher's command.
As the domains
line up, the material very slightly changes its length to
accommodate the rearrangement. This is magnetostriction. As the
magnetic field through the iron alternates, the iron expands and
contracts over and over again. These vibrations produce the sound
waves that create the transformer's distinctive hum.
In the US, the
mains voltage alternates 60 times every second (60 hertz), so the
material expands and contracts 120 times per second, producing
notes at 120 Hz and its harmonics. In Europe, where the mains
supply is 50 Hz, the hum is nearer 100 Hz and its harmonics.
Michelangelo D'Agostino , Berkeley,
California, US |
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In addition to
magnetorestriction there are two other reasons why transformers
tend to emit sound.
The first is
imperfect insulation. Just as the corona discharge from power
lines in damp air produces a buzzing sound, insulation breakdown
in a transformer can also be noisy. In practice, however,
insulation breakdown usually occurs deep inside a transformer,
where the heat stress is most severe, and no audible noise emerges
until the final catastrophic failure.
The second is
caused by moving parts. Power supplies such as those you find
behind computers sometimes make a buzzing sound, which is most
likely to be the wire winding moving as the transformer's magnetic
field and the current passing through it act together to produce a
force similar to that in an electric motor. On the face of it, it
seems that eventually metal fatigue ought to set in, but in
practice transformers seem to be able to keep buzzing for years.
Other parts of a
transformer can also buzz. For example, if the clamps that hold
the parts together are not fixed tightly, they can rattle inside
the casing.
David Billin , Carshalton, Surrey, UK |
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The description
"silent servant" did not really mean that electricity
was silent. The expression was coined in the early 1920s by the
General Electric Company in the US and used in advertisements and
popular magazine articles to promote the use of electrical
equipment in homes. The idea it was meant to convey was that
electricity, unlike humans, could perform tasks without speaking
or being spoken to, not that electricity itself was silent. Indeed
many pieces of electrical apparatus were, and still are, quite
noisy.
Michael Brady , Asker, Norway |
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Silent
transformers do now exist and have been around since the early
1980s. The first models were too heavy and bulky for many types of
equipment. But in modern appliances, "switch-mode" power
supplies are used which have much smaller transformers supplied by
alternating current at a frequency too high for humans to hear,
with sharp-edged pulses rather than smooth signals.
The mains AC
frequency of 50 or 60 hertz which is noisy when passed through
a transformer is increased to the higher frequency, usually via
an oscillator. The current then enters one or more transformers
that step down the voltage and, thanks to the inaudible nature of
the higher frequency, allow the transformer to perform quietly.
The more rapidly
changing magnetic field allows smaller transformers to be used. So
as well as converting the audible humming sounds to inaudible,
ultrasonic whistles, it helps make equipment smaller and lighter.
Patrick McTiernan , Swindon, Wiltshire, UK |
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