Satan: The Perfect Man

Samuel Fridh

Satanism and antichristianity have always had prominent roles in black metal. While most musicians and fans would claim that true evil is organized religion and even more so Christianity, black metal also appears as a new religious movement, making this statement highly paradoxical. One way to understand this is the constant search for an authentic masculine identity, and how the modern consumerist society is perceived to create a social climate that make some groups within the society feel alienated. Such a group includes heterosexual, working class men that made up most of the early black metal scene. With the help of the anti-aesthetic, which can take such expressions as self-mutilations and in the forms of opinions that it is good for humans to suffer instead of being happy, black metal men attempt to find their True Selves by separating that which they find masculine from the feminine - where Satanism and antichristianity become tools to do this. By idolizing and revering Satan as the perfect man, black metal men have started a war against Christianity to conquer which they think always belonged to them - namely their masculine identity from the on-going “feminization”.

- BACHELOR’S THESIS IN SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY - SATAN: THE PERFECT MAN A SYMBOL AND GENDER ANALYSIS OF SATANISM IN BLACK METAL SANNA FRIDH SUPERVISOR: STAFFAN APPELGREN SPRING 2010 TABLE OF CONTENT Prelude - INTRODUCTION: Satanism, metal and social marginalization 1 - PURPOSE AND DISPOSITION 2 Suite 1: “Black metalism” - HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF BLACK METAL 5 - THE EARLY BLACK METAL SCENE 6 - METAL: Commercialism and Extremism 9 Suite 2: Black metal and Satanism - SATANISM: A new religious movement 13 - THE PROBLEM OF EVIL 16 Suite 3: Analysis - “WHERE COLD WINDS BLOW”: A symbol and gender analysis 20 - “COMMERCIAL CHRIST”: Black metal and the future 28 CONCLUSIONS 31 REFERENCES 33 Prelude INTRODUCTION: Satanism, metal and social marginalization Ever heard about Euronymous, Count Grishnackh or Hellhammer? Maynbe not? But what about Mayhem, Darkthrone or Burzum … is there a light then? Or maybe eight burnt Norwegian churches? Anyway, there’s a record store in Oslo called Helvete where they sell 1 brutal death metal but more importantly, black, satanic, Norwegian black metal . - From Musikjournalen, P3 The quote is taken from the radio program Musikjournalen, where Euronymous - the founder and guitarist of Mayhem - is being interviewed. The interview deals with the nature of black metal and what it means to him. Euronymous makes clear from the start of the interview that black metal is elitist, explicit and mysterious. When the interviewer asks him about the reissued version of Deathcrush, their first EP, he states more or less right away that only “2030 [people] deserved to own it” the first time it was released and that the rest “are a bunch of idiots”. Mayhem therefore chose to reissue Deathcrush, so those who were “raw enough” to own it, could actually acquire it. Euronymous moves on to explaining how he thinks that Deathcrush is much better than all the other “shit” that was released in 19932, and a song that Mayhem created must be better than any other song to have been previously released. A song therefore cannot be of same or of similar quality like the other “shit […] everyone else is doing”. He considers it better to release only one album, which is seen as the best album ever made, than six or seven albums of subpar quality. He also states that it does not matter how much time it takes to produce that one album, as long as it will turn out to be the best one. When asked about Dead - who performed the vocals for Mayhem before he committed suicide - as well as the rumors regarding whether there would be photos and even body parts of his corpse circulating among the members of Svarta Cirkeln3, Euronymous answers rather evasively, but states that “we are not normal people” and that “we worship death and aren‟t scared of a corpse”. 1 My translation. The exact date of the interview is unclear but it seems likely it is somewhere after the reissued version of Deathcrush but before the murder of Euronymous in August 1993. See http://www.metalarchives.com/release.php?id=252 3 The name of the inner circle of black metal musicians that formed in Norway. Sometimes referred to as the Black Metal Circle in English literature, or the Black Metal Mafia among many other nicknames. 2 1 The early black metal scene most likely made many a Norwegian question their sanity. Why is it that a small country like Norway with less than 4.5 million citizens could give rise to black metal, the most controversial metal subgenre in existence, with all its related crimes such as church arsons, homicides and suicides (Moynihan, 2003)? To answer that, I think one must dig a bit deeper and look beyond the initial controversial surface and study black metal as a social movement made primarily by young men for young men (Mørk, 2009). By examining the symbols that are used to express certain ideas, it becomes possible to gain a sense of understanding of this social group which goes beyond merely describing it. These ideas can in turn show complex relationships between the group and its perception of itself in a larger context, making it possible to see that behavior which may appear as highly irrational to an outsider has an important function to express very human desires to make our lives feel more meaningful. Clifford Geertz once wrote that “man is an animal suspended in webs of significance he himself has spun, I take cultures to be those webs, and the analysis of it to be therefore not an experimental science in search of law but an interpretative one in search for meaning” (Geertz, 1973) 4. And by searching for meaning, I think one can get far in understanding black metal. PURPOSE AND DISPOSITION The focal point of this thesis will be an attempt to unravel the connection between the occurrence of black metal and its use of Satanism by primarily studying the movement from the perspective of symbolic anthropology with a focus on gender issues, which will make it possible to consider what this may say about the people who profess to be black metal practitioners. I will in particular analyze how they perceive and position themselves within the Western5 contemporary society and their relation to it, and how this reveals how something which appears on the surface as religious expressions in reality can be linked to the creation of a masculine identity. Album covers, band photographs, interviews, lyrics, as well as literature written about the subject will thus serve as empirical material for this study. Because there is a lack of written material about black metal in particular and even more so from a gender perspective, I have primarily focused on feminist and masculinity studies and then applied them to a black metal context, where I have chosen to limit myself in studying Mayhem, Burzum and Darkthrone because they were the earliest and most influential bands 4 From McGee & Warms (2006). ”Western” is of course a fluid definition, but Western will mostly be understood as the Euro-Americas, and even more so countries with Christian backgrounds. 5 2 during the early black metal scene. This can be understood form the fact that they all helped to shape the genre stylistically and ideologically (Mørk, 2009). The band photographs, lyrics and album covers that I used as a basis for my study will therefore mostly be based on the works of these three bands, unless stated otherwise. I also performed one semi-structured interview with a musician to whom I will only refer to as Damien Salvation as it is his stage name. I came in contact with Damien after I sent many different requests to both bands and individuals within the scene, to which he responded that he was willing to represent his own band Full Frontal Range and their views of black metal and Satanism. While Damien did not mind using his real name, I have purposefully chosen to refer musicians by their stage names only. The primary reason is because many are more known by their stage names, but also because it shows the difference of how these people are in private and who they truly want to be public. This can in turn be tied to the argumentation of how gender identities are created, in that we consciously choose to be who we are, both how and when (Iida, 2005; Gootlieb, 2003). Lastly it should be noted that I am not a musicologist which means I am not interested in understanding black metal as a musical style, where style would mean analyzing and understanding the stylistic elements used. Instead I have chosen to focus on its social and cultural aspects as a genre and what it means to be a black metal musician or a fan. While the style of the music plays a major role in understanding the genre, these elements will only be loosely touched upon when appropriate when they can help to further enhance the understanding of black metal as a whole. It should also be noted that while black metal is a rather young musical genre when compared to other genres, studying all of it would be impractical. I have therefore chosen to narrow it down to the early black metal scene of the late 80s and early 90s, because it is here that the style and genre now commonly known as “black metal” is born and it is here it appears as the most controversial. A historical and theoretical context will thus serve to explain its creation and social function, which is then exemplified by an analysis of a song text. I will also briefly touch on how the scene has developed since then and discuss its current trends and tendencies in how the genre appears today. Because religion and most notably, Satanism, is used as a tool to express various ideas in black metal, I will also attempt to shortly discuss how one can understand Satanism and how satanic and other religious elements are incorporated in order to convey thoughts on sexuality, gender and sex. As a basis for my study I will therefore refer to Clifford Geertz and the interpretative and symbolic field of social anthropology and how he chose to view religion, in 3 that religion is: (1) a system of symbols which acts to (2) establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by (3) formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and (4) clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that (5) the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic. -Clifford Geertz, 1973 6 I will then attempt to show how it is possible to understand black metal from a symbolic perspective and how these symbols all seem to function as expressions for a social group that seems to perceive itself as socially marginalized. From this discussion it will be possible to look at how black metal and Satanism can be ideological tools in creating a masculine gender identity. 6 From Bowie, f. 20 (2006) 4 Suite 1: “Black metalism” HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF BLACK METAL The generally accepted view is that black metal was born somewhere around 1982, when the heavy metal band Venom released their second full-length LP titled Black Metal (Moynihan, 2003). Venom managed to create an even darker and more evil atmosphere than for example Black Sabbath, and it is here the thematic integration of Satanism, the occult and other esoteric references are taking up more space within the heavy metal scene. The album Black Metal features a picture of Baphomet, the horned demon-goat, within an inverted pentagram and the Jewish letters for Leviathan written around it. Baphomet is a very popular icon both in black metal and in modern Satanism. One can thus say that it was here the ideology and the religion was really founded, and it was taken a step further with bands such as Bathory, and later Mayhem, in the mid- to late 80s. Venom also used to call their music “black metal”, which, along with the aforementioned LP, is cited as a reference of black metal‟s birth. Bathory also introduced the Viking-theme, the use of Scandinavian landscapes7 and its mythology, which too, would become reoccurring motifs not only in black metal but also in other younger subgenres such as Viking metal (Bossius, 2003). Even though Venom is cited to have coined the term “black metal”, it is possible to trace the roots of black metal even earlier. Heavy metal bands such as Kiss, Alice Cooper and Black Sabbath all helped to lay the foundation with their focus on heavy makeup, horrific and controversial stage appearances and shows, dark and heavy sound and lyrics inspired by Satanism and the occult. These bands would also help to pave the way for the bands that would emerge during the 80s and early 90s (Moynihan, 2003; Baddeley, 1999). It is common to refer to bands such as Venom and Bathory as the first wave, not because they created something which can explicitly be called black metal, but rather because they were the most important influential sources along with other bands such as Mercyful Fate, Hellhammer/Celtic Frost and Kreator. They would help to give birth to what is usually referred to as the “second wave” (Bossius, 2003; Mørk, 2009). It is here black metal as it is known today is actually born, and I will shortly attempt to describe the early ideologies as it is important in understanding the genre. 7 See Florian Heesch‟ Metal for Nordic Men: Amon Amarth’s Representation of Vikings (2010). 5 THE EARLY BLACK METAL SCENE The early black metal scene was primarily created in Norway. Such bands as Darkthrone, Mayhem and Burzum all pioneered in developing the genre stylistically and ideologically. Even though all these bands developed more or less individually, there was one man who stood behind them and helped to push them forward, and that man used to call himself Euronymous. Euronymous ran a small record store called Helvete (Hell) as well as his own record label called Deathlike Silence Productions which functioned as a social meeting hub for the local musicians (Moynihan, 2003). There he befriended Greven Grishnackh - or Varg Vikernes, as he is more known as today - among many others who are now considered a part of the core group of Norwegian black metal bands. With Euronymous as a leader, they formed an inner circle of black metal musicians who supposedly practiced some kind of devil worship. The members of Svarta Cirkeln also helped to spread rumors that they were practicing theistic Satanism, but there seems to be no evidence that support these claims, although Euronymous himself was ascribing to some kind of theistic Satanism which was more or less the inverted version of Christianity (Moynihan, 2003). Along with his religious tendencies, Euronymous also expressed such opinions that communism is the best political model, where he admired communist rulers like Nicolae Ceaucescu, which can be linked to the idea that people should not be happy but suffer by being in physical and emotional pain (Moynihan, 2003; Baddeley, 1999; see also the interview in Musikjournalen). It is therefore highly possible that it was Euronymous who initially influenced black metal into its misanthropic tendencies and use of Satanism and satanic imaginary. Even if Euronymous can be considered the driving force behind the scene, it also helped to promote itself because of all the related criminal behavior associated with it. One of the first examples that got huge media attention was when the singer in Mayhem, more known as Dead, committed suicide in April 1991 by shooting himself with a shotgun and slipping his wrists. Instead of immediately reporting the incident to the local police, Euronymous chose to photograph the scene and even take parts of Dead‟s skull to craft a necklace, as well as eating some of his brain. Euronymous also used Dead‟s suicide to heavily promote Mayhem. But the event which would gain the most media attention both in Norway and elsewhere, was when Varg Vikernes murdered Euronymous in August 1993 for reasons that are still unknown. There are speculations that he did it partly out of envy, and partly out of his slowly developed resentment towards Euronymous‟ character. The homicide incident caused Mayhem to stall the release of their debut album De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas one year, until after the trial of 6 Varg Vikernes. Varg Vikernes was charged for murder as well as various church burnings and got sentenced for 21 years in prison, the highest possible in Norway. The murder is still a sensitive subject within the scene as to who did what and why (Moynihan, 2003). It is also interesting to note that there were other controversies around the scene at the time. Such examples include when Faust, who was the drummer in early Emperor, murdered a homosexual man who had supposedly tried to sexually seduce him in August 1992 and got sentenced to 14 years in prison. Another is when Dissection‟s Jon Nödtveidt killed a homosexual Algerian man in 1997 and later committed suicide in 2006 (Moynihan, 2003; Expressen, 19-08-2006). With that said, while most musicians and fans share negative sentiments about a specific social group, most often Christians and other religious peoples, few of them have gone far enough as to murder someone else simply because of this resentment. Karl Spracklen says that there is an awareness among the fans that black metal is somehow not quite real in that many may take the present ideologies very seriously, but at the same time understanding that these ideologies are more in the shape of social expressions (2010). Even though many bands may sing about the apocalypse, they do not mean that they want to physically invoke it, merely meaning that this is how they feel about a certain issue. Such topics as the apocalypse are therefore primarily metaphorical in nature. This becomes apparent in the interview with the band Sorhin, when they were asked about how serious some of the practitioners appear to be, to which they retorted that “No, no, no! You have to understand the symbols!”8 (Bossius, 2003). Authenticity, fake-ism and essentialism Many who knew Euronymous also expressed that, even though he appeared very serious outwardly such as in the radio interview from Musikjournalens featured in P3, he had built up a persona that he did not live up to (Moynihan, 2003). One can say that there is confusion in that many people took the early scene very seriously, but at the same time knowing it is not quite real. Some may even actively refuse to take part in the scene‟s more theatrical “cult” side like Damien Salvation did, with whom I performed an interview with. By causing various violent acts black metal practitioners can push the borders between fiction and reality and therefore make the creation of a masculine identity more real and tangible. This becomes apparent when noting how Faust, who committed the first homicide related 8 My translation. 7 to the scene, got his social status elevated - leading to some of the core member becoming jealous, including Vikernes (Moynihan, 2003). During an interview, Faust also expressed that he felt no regret over his crime and that he saw it as a natural development of his character. A common sentiment was that it was weakness to feel sorry over the death of another human being (Baddeley, 1999). However, after the death of Euronymous, many started to think about the meaning of black metal - as they experienced it as a loss, not necessarily personal, but to the scene (Moynihan, 2003). This lead to that some practitioners experienced that they too did not live up to the ideology they followed. Such an example includes when Ihsan from the band Emperor said that while people took it very seriously, it is very hard to live up to the ideology (Ibid. f. 218). He also states that even though he may still be a Satanist, his relation to Satan and Satanism has changed (Bossius, 2003). Another point of interest is how Vikernes, before and after his murder of Euronymous, started to spread rumors about him because he had proof that Euronymous was homosexual9 to support the belief that he was a faker because he was not following the heteronormative ideal. Others also noted how that Euronymous was a different person in public and private, but it was not something that they put any personal weight on, even though they may not have liked it. One can therefore draw the conclusion that authenticity seems to actually be related to ideas of gender. By appealing to a kind of aggressive macho Cro-Magnon ideal, a masculine gender identity can be realized with the help of violence (Hoffstadt & Nagenborg, 2010 f. 37). There is a thus an essentialist view of men and women in black metal that men are men by being everything women are not and vice versa (Moynihan, 2003 f. 172). This is clearly shown in the interviews with Astarte, a female-only Greek black metal band, and how they perceive themselves as women in an otherwise male-dominated world, overflowing with masculine symbolism (Bossius, 2003; Mørk, 2009). Astarte is the name of a goddess of both war and motherhood, who inspires them to project themselves as more aggressive and therefore challenge the men, while remaining (to them at least) essentially feminine in that Astarte is also the symbol for motherhood. However, if they appear as too aggressive and therefore too manly, they are no longer considered women who just like to have a bit of an aggressive appearance, they are considered women who are men and therefore fakers (Bossius, 2003). 9 There is a prejudice among Westerners that homosexuals are more feminine in nature. See Mikael Sarelin‟s Masculinities within Black Metal: Heteronormativity, Protest Masculinity or Queer?. 8 METAL: Commercialism and Extremism We decided to do that because we have been into black metal for a long time and because we are getting bored with the death metal scene! [...] We do not want to just play brutal music but also want to do evil live shows with corpsepaint in our faces ... And black metal has a special feeling and gives us much more [...] [I]t seems the trend people are afraid of bands with corpsepaint and evil stuff. That’s good. People should hate it!!!! - Demonaz from the band Immortal in Sadistic Noise (1991) 10 Another aspect in understanding metal as a social phenomenon is its relationship to commercialism. Ian Condry (2006) writes that hip-hop can be split up into a pyramid where the top of the hierarchical structure represents the most commercially successful artists and the bottom the least commercially successful. The artists at the top are always the fewest and as the pyramid descends, they increase in number while at the same time becoming more obscure. There is a strong aversion between the lowest level of this pyramid and the top; where those who are at the bottom consider themselves more true and authentic not only musically, but also socially, while at the same time most musicians strive to be a part of the top. The same can of course be applied to metal, where similar ideas of authenticity and anticommercialism exist. Being commercially successful in metal seems to be when bands are featured both on famous TV channels that promote music such as MTV, as well as appearing in metal magazines such as Metal Hammer and Kerrang! (Mørk, 2009). Within this context, black metal as a genre appears rather extraordinary in its attempts to remain underground by, for example, refusing to play live. Even if bands did, they mostly did it at very small clubs and scenes. A large public was often considered around 200-300 attendants (Bossius, 2003). Similarities can again be drawn with the underground Japanese hip-hop scene (Condry, 2006). They also consciously use out-right poor production so the music itself would be “dirty” and a dark and evil atmosphere was achieved, which they personally thought fitted what they were trying to represent, which can generally be seen as the embodied evil in the music itself (Moynihan, 2003; Baddeley, 1999). Then add what is known as corpsepaint11, lyrics hailing Satan and the apocalypse, band logotypes often not even readable but printed in such a manner that it would look like some kind of demonic writing, it becomes clear why only a 10 From Mørk. Facial makeup which covers the whole face with black paint around the eyes and mouth with the rest of the face remaining white in colour. 11 9 few would actually truly appreciate this kind of music. The shock value is a very important factor in black metal to keep the scene itself vivid and alive, and most of all, underground (Sarelin, 2010). There is thus a constant search for more extreme musical expressions, and this can also be understood using Geertz‟ definition of religion. When a musical style and genre becomes commercialized, it loses its sense of uniqueness, and hence its authenticity. The symbols the genre carries are devalued and a new system (genre) must be invented. By not adhering to any existing musical genre or style, the music must therefore be unique and cannot be commercial. This is seen in the constant attempts to classify new genres, even though these bands may musically play an already existing style12, but this does not mean that some genres or styles do not lie closer to the mainstream. On the contrary, many genres actively seek out commercial attention, where heavy and power metal lie naturally closer to the mainstream music than other metal genres. However, because metal as a genre constantly attempts to renew itself by exploring more and more controversial and extreme themes, black metal is by far no exception to the rule of metal‟s constant attempts at renewal which occurred as a reactionary movement to death and thrash metal that both appeared during early 80s. In turn, death and thrash metal developed as reactionary movements to such styles as NWOBHM, New Wave of British Heavy Metal, which developed to counter the punk rock movement. When a few selected bands hit the commercial media both in USA and Great Britain, thrash and death metal attempted to create styles that would not be as easily accessible to the greater audience but would still mostly remain as underground, by exploring more extreme themes and developing more aggressive sounds. Thrash often dealt with political messages in a very frank and obvious way which was an attempt to offend, while death metal that came shortly after, tried to deal with these themes more indirectly, using images of death, necrophilia, extreme violence and gore as metaphors for the same political messages found in thrash (Bossius, 2003), while still dressed up like any other people of that age in sneakers, t-shirts, leather or jeans jackets and Hawaii shorts (Moynihan, 2003). Because death metal was considered commercially successful at the end of the 80s, it had lost its sense of uniqueness as a genre and a new genre had to be invented. By drawing inspiration from the first wave bands, black metal attempted to explore new ground by incorporating ideas of the occult and Satanism into the lyrics. The second wave of black metal See Bossius‟ discussion about how fans attempt to constantly dub black metal bands that do not lyrically focus on Satanism or antichristianity as playing an entirely different genre, such as Viking metal, forest metal or fairy tale metal to name a few (2003 f. 75 and 103). 12 10 put much focus on Satanism and a satanic approach in general, and it was more important that the music appeared atmospheric rather than aggressive or brutal. Euronymous said that any music can be black metal regardless of style, as long as it is satanic (see the interview in Musikjournalen). Shortly after the second wave, a third wave spawned which mostly followed the initial ideas of the second wave, but started to deviate at some point where it included more freedom both in terms of lyrical themes and sound. There is a resentment between the second and third wave bands because the second wave bands do not consider many of the third wave bands are authentic enough. This is explained in that many third wave bands such as Enslaved and Emperor have become commercially successful, and have lessened their satanic approach over time into a more general antichristian one13. This in turn has caused that some newer third wave bands can choose to either go back to the second wave roots and attempt to copy the second wave in terms of style and appearance, or they can appear more individual and face the critique of being less authentic. An example of a band that tries to renew the scene on its own terms is Enochian Crescent. By incorporating ideas of gender in their performances, as shown in Mikael Sarelin‟s (2010) report where the singer wore a corset on stage as opposed to the typical black dressing style with lots of nails and spikes, underground black metal bands are trying to find new ways to shock. If putting pig heads on stakes in front of the scene is no longer extreme enough, then maybe playing with gender roles is. If the goal with Enochian Crescent‟s stage appearance was to shock, then they certainly succeeded in that many in the audience called them “fags”. One can thus notice an internal struggle where black metal as a genre got issues in remaining cohesive in nature. Whether black metal has truly lost its uniqueness and a new genre must be invented to replace it remain to be seen, but it is certain that that genre will attempt to shock just as much as black metal does. 13 See Norske satanrockere topper New York Times (Norsk Rikskringkasting, 08-11-07) and Metal-Archives. 11 Suite 2: Black metal and Satanism SATANISM: A new religious movement The question that arises when studying any kind of social group is what one is interested in studying. With religion one can either study what religion is or what it does. “Is” can be understood as in the theological and philosophical ideas, and “does” as in what function or purpose the believers use the religion for. Since I have chosen to primarily focus on the latter, I will use Geertz‟ model in understanding the religion found in black metal, which means rather studying the symbols that function as social expressions than the theology. However, because Geertz‟ definition of religion is too broad, more explicit and functional models must be applied which can be found when attempting to frame Satanism as a new religious movement and how it relates to the society at large: ”New religions are religious groups that exist socially and culturally on the fringe, differ significantly in belief and practice from the dominant religious institutions of the culture in which they are located, and have minimum ties to and allies within the dominant government, religious, and intellectual structures of the society in which they operate.” - J. Gordon Melton, 2007 14 Satanism is however much more than a social group that is socially and culturally on the fringe, it also syncretises old and new ideas. As Jens Aagaard Petersen writes: “[m]odern Satanism is a conglomerate of ideas expressed in distinctive ways by individual groups [...] and should be generally understood as a product between the meeting of modern rationality and Western esotericism” (2005 f.424). Examples of ideas which are syncretised include how a Satanist may use the philosophies of Friedrich Nietzsche, Niccolo Machiavelli and Ayn Rand, as well as scientific ideas about biology, psychology and physics to formulate a material worldview with fitting morals (Ibid. f. 425). The syncretisation is therefore a part of what is actually “new” when it comes to new religious movements (Reader, 1991), in that new religious movements often merge old and new ideas that are previously thought to be polarized and therefore impossible to merge together, such as science and religion (Clarke, 2006). By being free to construct one‟s own cosmology, a higher level of individuality is reached 14 From David G. Bromley (2007) 12 which leads to a sense of uniqueness and thus authenticity. This feeling of authenticity is very important in new religious movements, and religions that focus on this feeling in particular are usually called “Religions of the True Self”. The purpose of these religions usually lie in search of a sense of self which is considered authentic, and can hence be understood as more true (Clarke, 2006 f. 12). The True Self is therefore a key term when studying new religious movements, since it highlights what an individual thinks and feels is true and authentic, and often seems to point to an identity the individual may not seem to currently posses but can be found with the help of the religion the individual may practice. The religion is a way to reach spiritual enlightenment and thus also a possible way to achieve the True Self which ultimately leads to the individual feeling his or her life is now meaningful. The True Self seems to indicate to a greater and better understanding of the world, the role humans play in the world and the meaning of this life. Other metaphysical questions may or may not be important such as what happens in the afterlife, but since Satanists in general do not seem to believe in a soul, identifying one‟s True Self therefore mostly revolves around existential questions that lead to self-empowerment (Petersen, 2005). Geertz also brings up the importance of a system of symbols that must appear authentic in order to be classified as a religion which seems to be in line with Peter Clarke‟s idea of “Religions of the True Self”. It is important that spirituality can be achieved from oneself and not from some kind of scripture or spiritual leader which will help to seek out and understand some kind of external divinity, but rather understand that the divinity in fact comes from the inside (Clarke, 2006; Reader, 1991). The focus on the layman is a common attribute of new religious movements, and even if there would be such a thing as a spiritual leader, they often hold minor roles and are more considered guides than presenting absolute interpretations towards the path of spiritual enlightenment, with the exception of the charismatic leader, who is often at the center of attention of a new religious group. The reason why the charismatic leader is so important to the group is that the charismatic leader often presents a set of rules of how individual members can find their True Selves, but these rules can frequently be practiced without the leader‟s specific supervision. Such an example includes Scientology. Lone individuals can use dianetics, Scientology‟s own self-help method which is a form of psychotherapy, but the only way for the practitioners to advance further beyond the lowest level of clear (a rank showing how far individual members have progressed in their spirituality) is to become active and paying members. L. Ron Hubbard, the creator of Scientology, conducted several steps members could advance and these steps have become very important in the search of spiritual advancement. Even though Hubbard‟s steps are not 13 absolute, they are recommended in order to spiritually progress. A Scientologist is therefore free to choose to not follow the steps Hubbard laid out, but by doing so that member will most likely no longer be considered a Scientologist by other Scientologists. Charisma can thus be understood as a complex social relationship between the followers and the leader, and even though the leader may have superior authority over the group, the leader‟s position is actually rather fragile and unstable (Christensen, 2005). If the leader would somehow disappear, either by death or other causes, there must be an accepted institution who can take over the leadership in the leader‟s stead, or the religious ideas will disappear when the leader does. When studying the early black metal scene, it is clear that the scene struggled to remain cohesive after Euronymous died because of the lack of an institution which could replace him (Mørk, 2009). After his death, the Satanism in black metal took more of a modern Satanist approach, which means that Satanism and Satanic elements are important in a metaphorical contexts rather than being physical in nature, as opposed to the previous theistic views. One can thus understand (modern) Satanism as two different variants, called Rational Satanism and Esoteric Satanism. The former is more of an atheistic variant with Satan acting as a metaphor for the individual, and the latter typically a variant of the Left Hand Path which puts focus on rites, rituals and the use of chaos magic while still remaining somewhat metaphorical in nature (Petersen, 2005). While Satan is still seen as a power or force, or maybe even a personal god, the goal, especially in black metal, seems to lie on the focus that one can ultimately also become Satan or at least similar to Satan by adhering to typical properties Satan seems to embody. This is shown in how it is viewed as a negative attribute to feel remorse or regret over a dead person (Moynihan, 2003). One can thus see Satan as a carrier of metaphorical properties by being an idealized version of the individual self just like in Rational Satanism. When putting this into the context of black metal, one can find both Rational and Esoteric Satanists, where individual practice may, for example, include cutting oneself and make pacts with Satan for a better material life (Bossius, 2003) and can therefore be seen as a way to solve both physical and psychological problems. Rationalist ideas may be expressed in song texts such as those written by Deathspell Omega or Covenant, who later changed name into The Kovenant (Metal-Archives). It is therefore important that a new religious movement has a practical function in the lives of the believers along with the ideological ones, in that it proves the power of the new religion to the practitioners, and thus reinforces its status as authentic rather than fake (Reader, 1991). 14 THE PROBLEM OF EVIL Satanism has been thought of being synonymous with cruelty and brutality. This is only so because people are afraid to face the truth - and the truth is that human beings are not all benign or all loving. Just because the Satanist admits he is both capable of love and hate, he is considered hateful. On the contrary, because he is able to give vent to his hatred through ritualized expression, he is far more capable of love - the deepest love. -Anton LaVey, 196915 Probably one the most important feature in both Satanism and black metal is the idea of evil. As outlined by the quote above, the social relationship with evil is a complex one. In the contemporary society as LaVey expresses, if something is deemed as evil then it is entirely evil, not just the part which appears as evil. Petersen outlines this further by explaining that there are two (Christian) definitions of evil: something can be evil because it is immoral, bad or in any other way not socially acceptable or wanted behavior, or something can simply be inherently evil in nature, for example pure evil, Evil with a capital E (2005). The idea of pure evil is often found in a fantastic or fictive context such as for example in fantasy literature like in J. R. R. Tolkien‟s Lord of the Rings, where the villain Sauron is depicted as the essence or embodiment of evil. One can also look at the mythological world found in Christianity, where Satan certainly fulfils such a role. Satan as a character is often described as being pure evil even outside a strictly Christian context, such as invoking evil in humans which make us commit immoral deeds. This implies that the people whom are influenced by Satan evil are evil as well. However, in the context of a new religious movement, evil is more than just committing an immoral deed such as killing another person. Clarke for example mentions how evil may be perceived as ignorance and lack of awareness, which in turn will hinder one‟s ability to understand the True Self (2006). In the case of Satanism, lack of awareness is usually aimed at Christianity and other religions where Satanists believe that since Christians are religious, they represent weakness by undermining human beings and our self-empowering qualities by applying “bad conscience, low self-esteem and feelings of guilt and shame upon people” (Mørk, 2009 f.178). This becomes evident in my interview with Damien. When I for example told him that I thought it was possible that Christianity could also bring forth good qualities in humans, he retorted that “[t]hat's what you're taught to believe, but greedy people use 15 From Petersen, f.15 (2010) 15 christianity [sic] as a tool to control the masses and fuel their corruption and greed” and that “[n]o, Christianity is evil, spreading truth is important” when I asked him about whether he thought it was important to spread evil. Since Satan is the anti-thesis of the Christian God, Satan therefore represents the opposites of these negative qualities God is perceived to represent, and thus allow the individual towards a path of enlightenment through self-empowerment which was previously impossible. In this regard, it is easy to understand why black metal Satanists insist on spreading evil (Bossius, 2003) 16, because for them it means the ultimate freedom of the individual. There is thus a millenarian idea in the need to spread evil, since if enough people will embrace evil, then it will inherently change the Western society and make Satanism normative instead of Christianity. This is most clearly shown in that many of the lyrics that focus on for example apocalyptic topics (Mørk, 2009; Bossius, 2003). Messianism, millenarianism and apocalypticism are all common themes in new religious movements (Reader, 1991), and Satanism in black metal is therefore no exception. This goes back to the discussion that black metal practitioners find themselves being trapped or limited because of their role of the other. Satanism is therefore used as a tool by black metal practitioners in order to try and free themselves, even if it means that this is only possible within their own social context. Freedom is therefore a very important feature in new religious movements, and even more so in Satanism. Freedom in Satanism can in turn be understood in that a truly free person is able to act beyond morals and norms which achieved by accepting who we naturally are. When accepting who we naturally are, it then becomes possible to truly understand ourselves (True Self) and thus become free. This is meant in a strictly anti-authoritarian sense by allowing the individual to transcend and act beyond social morals and norms. What is presented is thus a holistic view of the human being, in line with other Human Potential movements (Petersen, 2005). The problem of evil does not seem to end there, however. Bossius points to another problem which is in line with Clarke‟s idea of evil, namely how black metal Satanists seem to want to spread evil while at the same time insisting that true evil is in fact organized religion17 (2003). To explain this phenomenon one must understand why black metal musicians feel socially marginalized in many different ways. Bossius argues that since Christianity has taken the definition of what is good and right, it is impossible for black metal musicians to call 16 That Damien seems to contradict Bossius will be discussed in the analysis section. It is also important to note that Damien is not representative for the movement as a whole, and he even said himself that he had deviating views. 17 See the above comment of how Damien reacted when I asked him about evil. 16 themselves good because, by definition, that would imply they were Christians. With my interview with Damien, this became apparent as he seemed to unconsciously avoid labeling it as spreading good, but preferred to classify it as a kind of enlightenment, which made it possible to avoid getting stuck with good and evil by creating a third category – in this case enlightenment. However, since the early black metal musicians possessed a marginalized position in society and therefore represented the other opposing the norm, they cannot invert their social position. Petersen seems to agree with this by saying that there is generally an absolute approach in how we understand evil despite current Western pluralism and secularization (2005). He then brings up the definitions of transgression from and transgression to in order to explain this further. A transgression from something means an expression that reinforces current social ideas within the already existing normative system, while a transgression to something uses the expressions to create something new outside the system. The black metal movement uses Satanism to therefore reinforce the normative role Christianity has taken while Satanism as a religious movement on the whole transcends it by introducing a third category, by for example saying that they are not evil, merely spreading enlightenment (Petersen, 2010). When studying musical movements such as black metal, Bossius also poignantly raises the question “who the music is for” (2003). Since black metal is a movement that is primarily created by young men for young men, it is therefore also a transgressive movement from something rather than to something since it does not choose to introduce a third category. It is more interested in confirming the followers marginalized position within the group rather than actually attempting to transcend it, as opposed with modern Satanism which introduces a third category. Modern Satanists would most likely not call themselves evil per se, merely accepting the fact that they may possess certain attributes that could possibly be defined as evil within a Western, Christian context (Petersen, 2005). Lastly it is important to understand that while Satanism exists in both black metal and as an individual religious movement, they are by no means necessarily the same. Satanism as a religious movement therefore socially expresses something else than the Satanism in black metal. In fact, there was/is a strong aversion between the two where LaVey looked down on the simple-mindedness of the early black metal musicians while the musicians themselves considered LaVey not extreme enough and that the Church of Satan was their greatest enemy (Moynihan, 2003; Baddeley, 1999), because modern Satanism was “tailor-made” for the consumerist society (Mørk, 2009 f.189). 17 Suite 3: Analysis “WHERE COLD WINDS BLOW”: A symbolic analysis Where Cold Wings Blow I (was) laid to Rest/I Can not (sic) reach my Rusty Weapons/the Blood and Sword that Guided my Path/for they Drowned in the Sands of Wisdom I was, indeed, a King of the Flesh/My Blackened Edges; still they were Sharp /Honoured by the Carnal Herds/but asketh thou: Closed are the Gates?(sic)/My Mind cut my Winged Weapons/and Teeth that was my Pride /And from the Forest all would hear:/"Wisdom Opens the Gate for the King"/My Weapons Sighted - My Tears they Tasted /Summon my Warriors To the Land of Desire/To the Domain of Hate - Where Cold Winds Blew /For Lust for Hell We Rode with the North Wind/Only I could accomplish a fucken (sic) Self-deceit /There are only Two Paths - the Mind or the Sword/And the Mind was Open like the Sights in a Dream/But the Sword was like a Stone around my neck/I Entered the Soul of the Snake/and Slept with the Armageddish Whore/(but) (sic) without my Throne and my Weapons;/Where Cold Winds Blow became my Grave Darkthrone – “Where Cold Winds Blow” The quote is the complete version of Darkthrone‟s “Where Cold Winds Blow” from the album A Blaze in the Northern Sky released in 1992. The reason for quoting these lyrics is to show how satanic, occult and mystic ideas merge in a very complex way to say something about sex, sexuality and gender, where gender is to be understood as the cultural construction of masculinity and what it means to be a man, and where sex represents the male body but not necessarily masculinity. A person can thus be born with a male sex but for example espouse typical female attributes and therefore also take upon a female gender. “[H]uman beings are thus biologically social and socially biological and, similarly, structures create their individuality and their individuality creates social structures” (Edwards, 2006 f. 53). Gender and sex are therefore not mutually exclusive but rather inclusive, in that being born with a certain sex often means that one identifies oneself with a specific gender, but that sex is also the creation of our ideas of gender. This is seen in Don Kulick‟s critique of the dualism of man and woman found in the Western society. By introducing “men” and “not-men” instead of man and woman it is easier to surpass the boundaries created where a person can sexually be a man and choose to retain his penis but still otherwise appear as a woman, which is the case with the travesti, the Brazilian transgendered prostitutes who Kulick studied (1998). Men 18 and not-men are understood in that men are those who adhere to a typical masculine gender identity, while men who do not or are perceived as not doing so are considered not-men. When trying to understand the ideas about gender and sex in black metal, I have been faced with exactly the same problem. There are thus similar ideas in metal as those found among the travesti in that there is a difference between authentic masculinity and fake, feminine masculinity. This becomes evident in Gry Mørk‟s study “With my Art I am the Fist in the Face of god”: On Old-School Black Metal (2009), where one of her informants was not considered to fit the certain physical standard because he was a bit chubby as opposed to the idealized lean, slim and pale appearance. Despite his attempts to starve and even cut himself to show that he indeed did believe the ideology and took it seriously, he was not accepted into the group and some would even mock him. Because of his concerns with his looks and focus on food, he was considered feminine since these characteristics are usually associated with feminine behavior. This shows how the other black meal practitioners thought of him as being less masculine and hence, less authentic. One can thus draw the concussion that there is a perceived gender-normative among black metal practitioners which is in its basics, essentialist. This can be understood in that masculinity and femininity are considered polarized and are defined by what the other is not; such as if it is feminine to focus on one‟s looks, then the inverse is manly. Iida argues in her study of Japanese young men who consciously adapt to what are perceived as feminine attributes such as using make-up, that femininity has become a masquerade (2005). By dressing up and acting out specific gender roles outside the accepted norm, these men can more directly question the phallocentric patriarchy in the Japanese society. When studying the critique against this movement and why they are labeled as “women” by those who react against it, it is important to understand that that this is also a conscious act done to play out a certain role. Because it is an act, it is considered less authentic, which in turn implies that femininity and everything associated with it is fake. We choose who we are and when, but it does not mean that we choose to be who we truly are. By being incapable of following the aesthetic ideals in black metal, Mørk‟s informant was considered feminine and maybe even womanly and therefore fit the category of not-men. This shows how masculinity is created by defining the other, which is shown in the attempt to separate Mørk‟s informant from those who were considered more authentic because of their ability to be what femininity is not. The hero, feminization and the anti-aesthetic At this point it might therefore be sensible to ask the sex of the narrator of “Where Cold 19 Wind Blows”. The vocalist in Darkthrone is a man (Metal-Archives), and there are allusions that the narrator in the lyrics has been or is some kind of warrior because he uses a sword as a weapon, and “slept with the Armageddish Whore”. The conclusion one can draw from this is that the narrator is in fact a man, and a heterosexual one. The warrior is usually considered a powerful symbol for masculinity. Florian Heesch writes that the [Viking] warrior is a romanticized version of masculinity, and he symbolizes brutality, war and heroism (2010). One can also draw comparisons between Carl Jung‟s mythological archetype the hero to the warrior and say that they represent the same ideals (Bowie, 2006). Fiona Bowie writes that we can understand the hero as a monomyth and that the monomyth is in fact, more or less exclusively, male. The hero, just like the warrior, represents powerful symbols of masculinity with his “stereotypical conquering nature of heroism” (Ibid. f. 287). It is therefore possible to understand the hero as a person who must exert some kind of power, most often violence, in order to achieve his true goal. Tim Edwards writes that violence is typically seen as the opposite of femininity and the female attributes of care, service and motherhood (Edwards, 2006). Gry Mørk seems to agree with this conclusion in her assessment that black metal Satanism is out to destroy that which is considered “caring and light” (2009 f. 172). If we understand that black metal Satanism, with its focus on darkness and evil, is the opposite of the Christian “lightness” by using the violent, conquering hero from monomyth - then what black metal really is, is a critique against what Edwards calls “feminization”. “Feminization” can in turn be understood in that masculine ideas represented in “hardness, insensitivity to pain and unflinching willingness to inflict it” are being undermined and devalued as negative associations and connotations rather than positive ones (Edwards, 2006 ff. 17). What “feminization” does is that it threatens the existing patriarchy and its sense of stability and transparency, and thus also the perceived essentialist view of masculinity being everything femininity is not. By subjecting men into becoming objects of the “Capitalist gaze” and encouraging men to care just as much as their looks like women, “feminization of masculinity” can thus be understood as a form of power that equalizes men and women into objects (Iida, 2005). Since both men and women are now considered objects instead of one being the subject (previously usually the man viewing the woman), they have become socially equal. This also explains the use of violence and insistence of being victimizers instead of being victims and how this might be perceived as a resigned attitude (Bossius, 2003), since black metal men perceive themselves as victims of the on-going “feminization”. However, since it is not very masculine to be a victim (Edwards, 2006), they turned the tables around and are now supposed to conquer the on-going “feminization” with the use of violence both 20 against themselves and others. This is expressed in the lines where the narrator seems to be at the brink of death (“Where Cold Winds Blow became my Grave”) and he retells his journey as a warrior to the moment where he dies. What the narrator seems to describe is a sense of dissatisfaction with the material18 world (“To the Land of Desire/To the Domain of Hate”) even though it seemed that he had enjoyed everything he could possibly want (I was, indeed, a King of the Flesh”). He then goes on to explain how he attempted to reach some kind of spirituality ( “the Mind was Open like the Sights in a Dream”) but just like a dream, it turned out it was not real. Realizing this, he also realized how this entire world was a lie and built upon self-deceit (“I Entered the Soul of the Snake) and without having anything to identify himself with (“without my Throne and my Weapons”) even though he attempted to adapt (“Slept with the Armageddish Whore”), it ultimately lead to his defeat. I think at this point one should draw a comparison between the narrator‟s “mind” and Christianity and see the sword as a kind of phallus symbol, which means a powerful representation of male aggression and performativity, while the throne represents his male identity and its importance in a social context, since the person who sits at a throne often bears a significant social importance like a king or an emperor. Since his sword has rusted and his throne seems to be gone, what is described is a deep sense of alienation with his masculine identity and he could as well be dead. Another way to understand the resistance against Christianity and therefore in turn also “feminization”, is what Mørk calls the “anti-aesthetic”. Anti-aesthetic is in short simply an attempt to be everything which is not considered beautiful, such as being dirty, ugly and outright grotesque (2009). This is embodied in various ways throughout the genre, ranging from conscious low production value and the choice of singing style which often sounds like “brutal hissing, spitting or screaming” (Mørk, 2009 f. 186), a continuation from the lyrical themes of death metal such as “aggression, violence, war, […] rapists and oppressors “(Bossius, f. 79) and a focus on being physically unkempt and even self-mutilate oneself in order to achieve this ( Mørk, 2009). It is also important to dress in black from top to toe, and attempt to express a “dirty mind”. See for example the interview with Euronymous in Musikjournalen and how he expressed admiration towards Nicolae Ceaucescu. He even used a stamp where it said “No Mosh. No Core. No Trends. No Fun”19 to dissociate himself and the black metal movement from the rest of the society. The anti-aesthetic is therefore simply 18 19 Material could also be understood as the consumerist society. Mosh is form of dance style mostly associated with death metal, and core refers to the punk movement. 21 everything which is thus not deemed normal or natural by modern, Western standards (Mørk, 2009). What becomes apparent through all this is how stark the contrast is to the metrosexual man. A typical example of a metrosexual man is David Beckham, who is supposed to be a fashion icon for men and care about his looks in almost a narcissist way, as well as being good as a husband and father and being good at sex and enjoy various kinds of fun. When comparing the metrosexual man to the anti-aesthetic, it becomes evident they stand in stark contrast to each other with the mestrosexual man‟s “tanned and flawless skin, sleek and gym-shaped [body]”20 and likes “entertainment, fun and various forms of pleasures” (Mørk, 2009 f. 188). Even though “metrosexuality” was not coined until 1994, men‟s magazines have existed in their early iterations of Playboy and Esquire since the 50s, from where one can trace the younger forms of marketed ideas of what men should enjoy and thus, consume (Edwards, 2006). With the focus on consuming products, it is supposed to help men choose a good modern lifestyle while at the same time appearing as something fake. Through the use of consumption men's magazines describe how a man should be, whilst rarely if ever, discussing what it means to be a man. What men‟s magazines do is build up an idea of masculinity; in this case metrosexuality or variants of it that Edwards call “new man” or “new lad” (strictly speaking in a British and American context), based on consumer culture and therefore draws the comparison that men are actually the products they consume and make men objects instead of subjects. Compare to the movie Fight Club where the narrator tells the police officer that he indeed took the destruction of his apartment seriously, because it meant the loss of all his personal property: “Look, nobody takes this more seriously than me, that condo was my life. […] IT WAS ME” (Fincher, 1999 at 54:52)21. The anti-aesthetic is thus a serious critique of the superficiality of the modern consumption society, in that we are what we consume without reflecting what this means (Mørk, 2009). By attempting to be perceived as ugly, grotesque and repulsive, black metal practitioners indicate that they do not want to be objects since if no one wants to look at them, they cannot be objectified. Violence, work and masculine crises Continuing on the theme of Fight Club, Mørk also discusses how the permeating violence in As has been noted, to care about one‟s looks is considered a highly feminine behavior among black metal men. Of course one can question that consciously not caring also in turn means caring or at least point to some kind of awareness of one‟s appearance, but because of length limitations this is not a subject I will discuss in greater detail. 21 See also p. 110-111 (Palahniuk, 2006) 20 22 black metal expresses a frustration with the male identity (2009), which links back to the previous murders as well as suicides I mentioned in an earlier part of this thesis. The Norwegian man feels socially alienated and black metal is by far not the only phenomenon in popular culture that particularly puts its focus on violence to create awareness of the white, heterosexual man‟s socially marginalized position as a victim of “feminization”. Here Fight Club serves as an example of what she calls creative violence, where creative simply denounces that violence can also carry social messages to heal, structure or balance current social norms and ideals. Violence therefore has a social meaning (Mørk, 2009; Geertz, 2006), and by destroying that which is old or already exists, something new can therefore be created. An example of creative violence is when a group of people attempt to destroy the current dictatorship so a new government can be created (Gilsenan, 2002). Black metal in turn, can be understood as a subgroup called progressive violence, which explicitly aims criticism at the consumer culture and how it undermines current masculine standards and ideals. By using violence against oneself such as shown with the anti-aesthetic, a new masculine identity can be created (Mørk, 2009). This is something Tim Edwards also seem to agree with, in that violence can indeed be a tool to create an authentic masculine identity when nothing else seems to work. Mørk goes on to say that darkness along with the use of natural landscapes (for example forests and icy plains) exactly represent this struggle between masculinity and modernism: it is about moving to what is seen as a natural state of mind. Darkness can here be understood as that which is authentic and true and therefore also natural whereas light symbolizes the modern unnatural consumerist society (2009). It is also possible to argue that Norway, which experienced a great financial boom after the discovery of oil in the Atlantic Sea and therefore under a very short time-period turned out to be one of the richest Scandinavian countries, most likely became more susceptible to the capitalism and hence, the consumerist culture. Thomas Bossius writes that already socially marginalized groups might become even more exposed and marginalized in a society which is changing very rapidly, and how this might become a breeding ground for racism (2003), homophobia and sexism. This is something Edwards (2006) agrees with in that modernization and the use of new technology seems to undermine patriarchy in that not only are men losing their jobs because machines are doing their jobs so much better, it also inherently changes what kind of jobs men will perform. Along with current outsourcing of jobs and the demand of a high education for employment, something studies show that men often fall short on, no wonder the modern society may be perceived as a threat to masculinity. Work and especially physical labor seems to be strongly 23 linked to masculinity overall, and unemployed men may feel emasculated without physical labor most commonly associated with the working class. Many from the early black metal movement seem to generally have belonged to the working class (Bossius, 2003), and it is therefore not too farfetched to assume that they may have felt their own masculinity threatened. In a society where they are not wanted and have no purpose, black metal becomes a way to both function as an outlet and as a confirmation of their social marginalization. This perceived threat to masculinity is what Edwards calls a “crisis of masculinity”, which seems to be a diffuse idea of a threat to what Westerners perceive as masculinity, is about to disappear, but exactly what “masculinity” or “manliness” is, is left unexplained. Because the “crisis” appears so unsubstantiated, the idea of a threat is the actual crisis itself. There is therefore more of a highly diffuse, generally agreed upon idea of what masculinity is, which is considered as something essential and the opposite of that which is feminine22 (2006), and it is this idea which is threatened. Masculinity itself is not in a crisis, as masculinity is something fluid which subtly changes depending on our ideas of sex and gender and with interaction of others (Gootlieb, 2002) but rather our perceived idea of masculinity. It does not of course make the idea of a threat less real, on the contrary, as seen in how serious the early black metal scene took itself. The perfect man: Vikings and Satan as metaphors for masculinity The use of such themes as nature therefore explains a longing to go back to a time in history which existed but no longer exists, but by singing about them they can be evoked in present time (Heesch, 2010). Bossius writes that almost all themes found in black metal as well as in other various metal subgenres seem to focus on a place in time before Christianity, with the exception of Christian black metal/unblack metal and white metal23 (2003), and this is also supported in Florian Heesch‟ study of Amon Amarth‟s song “The Pursuit of the Vikings” (2010). The Scandinavian nature is often closely connected to the Scandinavian identity, and especially so in Norway (Mørk, 2009) where nature seem to point to a place in time before the industrialization. Industrialization is therefore seen as a threat against the Norwegian nature which in turn symbolizes the natural state of being, hence that which is authentic and true which is, for example, represented in Vikings. The idea of the Viking or medieval warrior is also represented in “Where Cold Winds Blow”, because of the temporal space determined by 22 One can also discuss what is essentially feminine, but for the purpose of this thesis it will mostly be interpreted as that which is not masculine. 23 Metal which generally focuses on Christian themes and promoting Christianity regardless of musical style. 24 the narrator‟s use of a sword (the Blood and Sword that Guided my Path). Since Darkthrone comes from Norway, it is not too unlikely that they also used a Viking warrior in particular to portray the hero, since the romanticized portrayal of Vikings seems to be common among Scandinavians in particular (Heesch, 2010). The modern consumerist society is therefore seen as a highly unnatural phenomenon in various ways, not only because it appears as fake and therefore not authentic (Mørk, 2009), but also because it classifies men as not-men by undermining previously positive masculine attributes. By recreating the hero from monomyth in the form of a Viking or medieval ancestor, they can therefore invoke a discussion of what it means to be a Scandinavian man just like how the Japanese hip-hoppers use the samurai to invoke a discussion of what it means to be Japanese (Condry, 2003). The question is then; can Satan also be seen as a hero? Maybe not necessarily a hero although Satan indeed transcends two worlds by both being a physical force which effects us and by being a spiritual/metaphorical being (see Bossius f. 115-117), but it is definitely a metaphor for masculinity and therefore in a way also the idealized man, similar to how Satanists in general consider Satan as a metaphor for the individual self. I think the answer lies in how Satan has come to be understood as a symbol for masculinity because Satan is evil and evil is a symbolic representation of an uncontrollable and free power. This is supported by how black metal men often sing about how they perceive Christianity to be a prison that limits them in various ways, and that the only way to truly become liberated is to embrace darkness (Mørk, 2009). This links back to the focus on war, which can in turn be understood in how war is considered a typical masculine activity. Edwards links how wars and revolutions have been used in the past to resolve conflicts when masculinity has been equally perceived to be in a kind of crisis. War can thus be seen as an activity which is meant to help black metal practitioners liberate themselves, just like how the French Revolution was meant to liberate the French men from the current social masculine norms (2006). By being able to “carve men out of boys” (Mørk, 2009 f. 194), especially with regards to how violence and pain are used in passage rites, it is possible to understand how black metal practitioners want to carve their femininity out of themselves. Because Satan is the ultimate evil and hence also the ultimate freedom, it becomes possible to see Satan as the ideal representation of male aggression and therefore also the ideal man. It is not so hard to understand why men in black metal seem to worship Satan in this context, as shown in such statements as “Satan My 25 Master”24 or [i]t is the Lord himself who commands me”25, which again goes back to how black metal men insist on going to war against Christianity. “COMMERCIAL CHRIST”26: Black metal and the future Satan is therefore the anti-thesis of the Christian God and Christian values. Since Christianity is that which is caring and light, it has come to represent the “feminization of masculinity”, in that Christianity promotes the message that both men and women should care for one another in a sexualized sense. This means that men should become sexual objects to women just like women are sexual objects to men. Since men and women are now considered equal as objects to one another, and humans are also considered equal in the eyes of God, one can argue that the Christian God is in fact just a metaphor for the “Capitalist gaze”. This means that Christianity is in reality a metaphor of the modern consumerist society, and how this is perceived as a threat against old values of masculinity. That commerciality and to an extent consumerism is therefore seen as a bad thing in black metal will therefore appear as no surprise then. It should not be forgotten that black metal was born out of the disappointment of the death metal movement and how it was supposed to create a new masculine identity by representing the “guy next door” (Mørk, 2009; Moynihan, 2003). However, just as black metal rose in the demise of death metal, there are signs that black metal might also be nearing its end or might already be there. After the death of Euronymous and Vikernes sent to prison, the two most prominent men in black metal were gone that scattered the movement and made many members question its values. That many third wave bands along with some second wave ones have become very commercially successful during the past ten years also seems to be an indication of this (Ibid.). Even though some purist fans and musicians may argue the scene is dead (Baddeley, 1999; Mørk, 2009), there is at the same time an on-going progression where fans and musicians alike distance themselves from the initial form of Satanism and now seem to espouse a more general antichristian sentiment (Bossius, 2003). Damien for example said that “Satanism has no place in Black Metal in my opinion, the whole „cult‟ scene is a joke” when I asked him about what role Satanism has in black metal. While the early black metal scene was certainly antichristian, one could view this shift in how there might no longer be a need to reinforce such an essentialist masculine identity as before, which can be linked back to the 24 A song performed by Bathory. From “Sworn to the Dark” by Watain. 26 A song performed by Full Frontal Rage. 25 26 “crisis of masculinity”, in that since there really was no crisis to begin with, many of the men who were a part of the early Norwegian scene have now come to terms with the “feminization”. Since it had been Euronymous who primarily insisted on theistic Satanism, it probably invited openness after his death and allowed black metal to move from being a transgression from to a transgression to, by accepting that manliness does not necessarily mean to completely reject feminine values but that femininity can also be a part of masculinity. It therefore becomes possible to create a more whole form of masculinity that is allowed to transcend both masculine and feminine values in that a masculine identity does not necessarily requires to be either but can be a fusion of them. This is more in line with the actual definition of True Self and LaVey‟s idea of evil which states that accepting by who one is also means to accept all of one‟s character traits, not just the good or the bad ones. This identity creation is in fact more authentic because one is not considered an act to be something else. This can be understood in that by completely rejecting feminine values, one is pretending to be the opposite. The early black metal scene is therefore actually comparable to the very thing it wanted to go war against - namely “feminization”, as shown in how the early black metal practitioners were consciously acting out an essentialist masculine gender identity. That this masculine gender identity was realized as just as fake as the metrosexual man black metal so fiercely attacked, most likely made the scene more open and tolerant. This is proven by the fact that there are now active female musicians within the scene, as opposed to where there were originally none. Previously mentioned Astarte is such an example27. The attitude towards women is also primarily perceived as something positive in that many men welcome women into the scene, although there are still those who insist on an essentialist idea and most of all question the women‟s ability to, for example, play the guitar with the proper aggressive style (Bossius, 2003). That Astarte can mark themselves as aggressive (at least to a point) and yet remain feminine proves that some of the essentialism is gone, and that aggression is no longer seen as an explicitly masculine attribute. For Astarte it is completely natural to be aggressive and feminine at the same time, and this shows that gender identities are also far more complex than that something is and something is not. Mikael Sarelin also brings up how playing with sexuality and gender, such as when the singer in Enochian Crescent wore a corset on stage in order to shock, might be the new way 27 Of all the sources I have read of the early black metal scene, none have indicated that there were any women involved more than as fans, although I suspect that most of these sources were not interested to investigate it either. 27 for black metal to keep itself alive (2010). Considering how there rather seems to be a need for a more easily defined masculinity particularly among young men, I do believe that these kind of protests might be short-lived, but of course, it is hard to tell. Mixing feminine gender ideas with masculine ones still does not seem to be very popular in general, when compared to the opposite such as the aforementioned Astarte. This is something I have noticed myself in my interview with Damien and what he thought of metalcore, one of the most recent metal subgenres. Damien for example expressed that “there's some metalcore I respect, but those bands generally are on the border of melodeath” 28, and when I asked him what the difference was with these bands to the others that he did not like, he first said that there was not that much of a difference but after some thinking, he added “and less singing femininely”. When I asked him a bit further if he just did not like women or something which sounded like female singing, he said that “[n]o, I actually like a lot of female fronted bands, It is the men who sing in high voices and act very emotionally that I think is bad”. So while the black metal scene in general still remains critical in how masculinity might be mixed with what is perceived as typical feminine attributes, it has certainly become more open and tolerant and will most likely keep on moving in that direction as our views of gender and sex continue to change. 28 Metalcore is a mix of hardcore punk and extreme metal substyles such as death and thrash metal. It also draws inspiration from the melodic death metal style, often abbreviated as MDM or “melodeath”. Some bands will therefore sound more like the original melodic death metal style or lie closer to hardcore punk or other influential styles. 28 CONCLUSIONS So what is seen so far is is a complex relationship between black metal‟s use of Satanism and how ideas of gender, sex and sexuality are expressed. Using symbols such as violence and war and the hero from monomyth, black metal men are out to conquer that which they perceive as theirs: namely their masculinity from Christianity, which means that they can also attack the on-going “feminization” of the Western contemporary society. What has been shown is thus an essentialist view of masculinity and femininity in that masculinity is defined by everything femininity is not and vice versa, and how it is possible to understand this by applying such terminology as men and not-men to describe this phenomenon. This is in turn represented by the use of the anti-aesthetic which is mostly aimed at the metrosexual man and how he is perceived as a fake, but also the consumerist society at large and how it undermines patriarchy. Such symbols as darkness and evil therefore function as metaphors to point to a place in time before the industrialization and in turn the consumerist culture, and hence to a time where men were actually considered men and thus authentic. Satan can hence be seen as the ideal, authentic man in how Satan opposes everything Christianity is not. This feeling of a threat against masculinity can in turn be understood as a “crisis of masculinity”, and how it created a need for an authentic masculinity which could be manifested with the use of physical violence – known as creative violence. Since this masculine identity was based on a diffuse idea of what masculinity is but is not masculinity per se, most men from the early scene seemed to have come to terms with that masculinity and femininity are not necessarily polarized. This becomes evident when studying current changes within the scene where there is a higher tolerance towards female musicians, and how there even is room to play with queer ideas. There is thus a rising acceptance towards consumerism and commerciality, as seen in the Norwegian article from Dagbladet Fredag which compares Satyr from Satyricon then and now, and how he seems to have become effected by the metrosexual phenomenon dressed up in expensive fashion clothing and presenting the “black metal‟s sophisticated alternative”29, as opposed to then where he was considered quite unkempt and rebellious (Bossius, 2003). This change in black metal can in turn be understood using Clarke‟s definition of the True Self and LaVey‟s idea of evil, and how Satanism in black metal really functions as a new religious movement. By coming to terms with one‟s weaker character traits is also a part of accepting who one is, and by accepting who one is, it is also possible to transcend and 29 My translation. 29 overcome these weaknesses and truly create an actual authentic identity which is neither necessarily masculine nor feminine. Divinity is therefore not affined to our outwards appearances, but comes from the inside. This can also explain why the black metal movement started to move away from theistic Satanism and instead embracing a more general antichristian sentiment, which made it change from a transgression from to a transgression to. Masculinity and ideas of masculinity are therefore very complex social constructs in how they appear in space and time, in that “‟identity‟ itself is not only a multifaceted construction from place to place, but a construction whose contours may change from situation to situation for any of us” (Gottlieb, 2002 f. 171). While there are still racist30, homophobic and sexist ideas in black metal and that these certainly will not go away over a night, there is an increasing tolerance towards those who break the gender-normative role. Even though some purists may argue that black metal is dead in that the genre has changed over time into something they no longer define as truly black metal - I would argue that it is more alive than ever, as noticed with Astarte and Enochian Crescent that are perfect examples of metal‟s constant renewal and hence, vitality. See Karl Spracklen‟s study, True Aryan Black Metal: The Meaning of Leisure, Belonging and the Construction of Whiteness in Black Metal Music in Scott, Niall W. R. The Metal Void: First Gathering Oxford: Inter-Disciplinary Press (2010) of how white supremacist ideas and the construction of the Aryan race is created in black metal. 3030 30 REFERENCES Baddeley, Gavin (1999) – Lucifer Rising: a book of sin, devil worship and rock’n’roll London: Plexus Publishing Limited Bathory (1998) – Jubileum Vol. III Bossius, Thomas (2003) – Med framtiden i backspegeln: black metal- och transkulturen.Ungdomar, musik och religion i en senmodern värld Göteborg: Daidalos Bowie, Fiona (2006) – The Anthropology of Religion: An Introduction Blackwell Publishing Bromley, David G. (2007) - Teaching New Religious Movements (Aar Teaching Religious Studies Series) Oxford: Oxford University Press Clarke, Peter (2006) – New Religious Movement in Global Perspective; a Study of Religious Change in the Modern World New York and London : Routledge Condry, Ian (2006) - Hip-Hop Japan: Rap and the Paths of Cultural Globalization Durham and London: Duke University Press Christensen, Dorthe Refslund (2005) – Inventing L. Ron Hubbard: On the Construction and Maintenance of the Hagiographic Mythology of Scientology’s Founder in Lewis, James R., Peterson, Jesper Aagaard Controversial New Religions Oxford: Oxford University Press Darkthrone (1992) – A Blaze in the Northern Sky Demonaz in Sadistic Noise (1991): Issue 3 Edwards, Tim (2006) – Cultures of Masculinity New York and London : Routledge Euronymous in Musikjournalen, P3 (1993): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pBXZ_ATTndo and http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bBQ7sZET_4E&feature=related Expressen (19-08-2006) – Svenske hårdrocksstjärnan tog sitt liv Fincher, David (1999) – Fight Club 20th Century Fox Geertz, Clifford (2006) – Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight in McGee, Jon R. & Warms, Richard L. Anthropological Theory: An Introductory History New York: McGrawHill Gootlieb, Alma (2002) – Interpreting Gender and Sexuality in MacClancy, Jeremy Exotic No More: Anthropology on the Front Lines Chicago: The University of Chicago Press Heesch, Florian (2010) – Metal for Nordic Men: Amon Amarth’s Representation of Vikings in Scott, Niall W. R. The Metal Void: First Gathering Oxford: Inter-Disciplinary Press Hoffstadt, Christian & Nagenborg, Michael (2010) – You’re too Fuckin’ Metal for Your Own Good! Controlled Anger and the Expression of Intensity and Authenticity in Post-Modern 31 Heavy Metal in Scott, Niall W. R. The Metal Void: First Gathering Oxford: Inter-Disciplinary Press Iida, Yumiko (2005) – Beyond the “feminization of masculinity”: transforming patriarchy with the “feminine” in contemporary Japanese youth culture in Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, Vol. 6 Routledge Kulick, Don (1998) – Travesti: sex, gender, and culture among Brazilian transgendered prostitutes London and Oxford: The University of Chicago Press McGee, Jon R. & Warms, Richard L. (2006) - Anthropological Theory: An Introductory History New York: McGraw-Hill Third Ed. Metal-Archives: www.metal-archives.com Moynihan, Michael & Søderlind, Didrik (2003) – Lords of Chaos: The Bloody Rise of the Satanic Metal Underground Los Angeles: Feral House Mørk, Gry (2009) – “With my Art I am the Fist in the Face of god”: On Old-School Black Metal in Petersen, Jesper Aagaard, Contemporary Religious Satanism: A Critical Anthology Cornwall: MPG Books Ltd. Petersen, Jesper Aagaard (2005) – Modern Satanism: Dark Doctrines and Black Flames in Lewis, James R., Peterson, Jesper Aagaard Controversial New Religions Oxford: Oxford University Press Petersen, Jesper Aagaard (2010) – “Smite him hip and thigh”: Satanism, violence and transgression in Lewis, James. R., Petersen, Jesper Aagaard Violence and New Religious Movements Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press (Forthcoming) Reader, Ian (1991) – Religion in Contemporary Japan Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press Palahniuk, Chuck (2006) – Fight Club Great Britain: Vintage Sarelin, Mikael (2010) – Masculinities within Black Metal: Heteronormativity, Protest Masculinity or Queer? in Scott, Niall W. R. The Metal Void: First Gathering Oxford: InterDisciplinary Press Spracklen, Karl (2010) – True Aryan Black Metal: The Meaning of Leisure, Belonging and the Construction of Whiteness in Black Metal Music in Scott, Niall W. R. The Metal Void: First Gathering Oxford: Inter-Disciplinary Press Watain (2007) – Sworn to the Dark Author’s Note: All source material regarding releases, lyrical content and CD covers are taken from Metal-Archives. 32

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