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The First Unequal Treaties and the Forced Opening of Korean Ports

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Japanese "Judicial Imperialism" and the Origins of the Coercive Illegality of Japan's Annexation of Korea

Abstract

The origins of Japanese imperialism began with a multi-stage initiative of “opening” Korea to conduct trade and form diplomatic relations. The outbreak of the Im-Oh Rebellion and Japan's decision to deploy soldiers in response to Chinese intervention quickly became a cause for Japan to seek compensation from the Korean government by demanding an excessive amount of cash from the Korean government. Moreover, because the Japanese believed that the insecurity of the Korean government following the conclusion of the Im-Oh Mutiny and the fact that Korea had not established diplomatic relations with much of the world could be used as reasons for the Japanese government to conduct Korea's diplomacy instead of the Korean government, the “opening” of Korea essentially signalled the beginning of Korea's loss of diplomatic sovereignty. Japan's decision to connect Waekwan and Pusan through telegraph lines was instrumental in facilitating Japan's economic penetration into Korea.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    For more on the circumstances surrounding the ratification of the Treaty of Amity Between Korea and Japan, see Hyŏn Myŏngch'ŏl, “Makmal Chŏngch'isawa Han-Il Kwankyeŭi Pyŏnhwa,” (The Political History of the Bakufu's Demise and Changes in Korea-Japan Relations) Han-Il Kwankyesa Yŏnku (Studies on Korea-Japan Relations), Vol. 65 (2019), 129–163; Yi Kŭnkwan, “Cho-Il Suho Chokyu (1876) ŭi Chae P'yŏng-ka —Chŏn-t'ongchŏk TongAshia Kukche Chilsŏui Kwanchŏmuroput'ŏ,” (A Reappraisal of the Treaty of Amity Between Korea and Japan: From the Perspective of Traditional East Asian International Relations) Sŏul Kukchepŏp Yŏnku (Seoul Journal of International Law), Vol. 11, No. 2 (2004), 57–79; Yun Soyŏng, “Cho-Il Suho Chokyuŭi Yŏksachŏk Wich'i,” (The Historical Stature of the Treaty of Amity Between Korea and Japan) Han-Il Kwankyesa Yŏnku (Studies on Korea-Japan Relations), Vol. 18 (2003), 129–170.

  2. 2.

    Article 1 of Cho-Il Suho Chokyu (The Treaty of Amity), February 13, 1876 in The Northeast Asian History Foundation ed., Han-Il Choyak Charyochip (1876–1910): Kuntae Woekyoro P'ochangtoen Ch'imryak (A Collection of Treaties Between Korea and Japan (1876–1910): An Invasion Redressed as Early Modern Diplomacy) (Seoul, Korea: The Northeast Asian History Foundation, 2020), 30. This book is a collection of all major treaties signed between Korea and Japan between 1876 and 1910. The book will be noted as HICC hereafter.

  3. 3.

    On “Kyorin” as a concept, see Funabashi Yoichi, “'Kyorin'yiranŭn Kŏt,” (The Concept of Kyorin) Ilpon Yŏnku, Vol. 11 (2009), 35–38.

  4. 4.

    Articles 4 and 5 of Cho-Il Suho Chokyu, HICC, 30–31.

  5. 5.

    Article 6 of Cho-Il Suho Chokyu, HICC, 31.

  6. 6.

    Article 7 of Cho-Il Suho Chokyu, HICC, 31.

  7. 7.

    Article 8 of Cho-Il Suho Chokyu, HICC, 31.

  8. 8.

    Article 9 of Cho-Il Suho Chokyu, HICC, 31.

  9. 9.

    Article 10 of Cho-Il Suho Chokyu, HICC, 32.

  10. 10.

    For a more specific discussions about the historical significance of the treaty, see Kim Hŭng-su, Han-Il Kwankyeŭi Kŭntaechŏk Kaep'yŏn Kwachŏng (The Process of Reconfiguring Pre-Modern Korea-Japan Relations) (Seoul National University Press, 2009); Choe Tŏk-su et al., Choyakŭro Pon Hankuk Kŭnhyŏndaesa (Seoul, Korea: Yŏllinch'aek, 2010); The Center for Korea-Japan Relations at the Northeast Asian History Foundation ed., Cho-Il Suho Chokyu—Kundaeŭi Ŭimirŭl Mutta (The Treaty of Amity Between Korea and Japan—An Inquiry into the Concept of Premodern) (Seoul, Korea: Ch'ŏng-a Publishing, 2017).

  11. 11.

    Kenneth Robinson, “Centering the King of Chosŏn: Aspects of Korean Maritime Diplomacy, 1392–1592,” The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 59, No. 1 (February, 2000), 109–125. See also Kang Tongkuk, “Chosŏn Chŏn-kiŭi Kyorin Kaenyŏm,” (The Concept of Kyorin in the Early Joseon Period) Kaenyŏmkwa Sot'ong (Concepts and Communication), Vol. 21 (2018), 129–167; Nam Kung Gon, “TongAshia P'yŏnghwa Ch'eche e kwanhan Yŏnku,” (A Study of the System of East Asian Peace) Hankuk Chŏngch'ihak Hoepo (Korean Political Science Bulletin), Vol. 33, No. 3 (December, 1999), 219–240, Jung Hun-sik, “Chosŏn Huki T'ongsinsahaengrok e Nat'anan Yemulsuchŭng Kaltŭngŭi Sitaechŏk Yangsangkwa Kŭ Paekyŏng,” (Trends in Conflicts Surrounding Gift-Giving Rituals in the Late Choson Period and Their Background) Hankuk Minchok Munhwa (National Culture), Vol. 76 (August, 2020), 57–88; Shim Minjung, “Chosŏnhuki Ilpon Sasin Chŏptae Chŏlch'awa Yangsang,” (Procedures and Trends in the Reception of Japanese Emissaries in the Late Choson Period) Han-Il Kwankyesa Yŏnku (Studies on Korea-Japan Relations), Vol. 50 (April, 2015), 69–121. For more general discussions about the tributary system, see David C. Kang, “Hierarchy and Legitimacy in International Systems: The Tribute System in Early Modern East Asia,” Security Studies, Vol. 19, No. 4 (2010), 591–622; Erik Ringmar, “Performing International Systems: Two East Asian Alternatives to the Westphalian Order,” International Organization, Vol. 66, No. 1 (Winter, 2012), 1–25; David C. Kang, “International Relations Theory and East Asian History: An Overview,” Journal of East Asian Studies, Vol. 13, No. 2 (May–August, 2013), 181–205; Yong-hwa Chung, “Chosŏnŭi Chokong Ch'eche Insikkwa Hwalyong,” (Korea's Perception and Utilization of the Tributary System) Hankuk Chŏngch'i Woekyosa Nonch'ong (Review of Korean Diplomatic History), Vol. 27, No. 2 (2006), 5–32; Peter I. Yun, “Chŏnkŭntae TongAshia Ch'ŏnha Ch'ekyewa Chokong Ch'eche,” (Pre-Modern East Asia's World Order and the Tributary System) Tongyang Munhwa Yŏnku (Studies on Oriental Cultures), Vol. 29 (2018), 133–158; Zhang Yongjin and Barry Buzan, “The Tributary System as International Society in Theory and Practice,” The Chinese Journal of International Politics, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Spring, 2012), 3–36; Yuan-kang Wang, “Explaining the Tribute System: Power, Confucianism, and War in Medieval East Asia,” Journal of East Asian Studies, Vol. 13, No. 2 (May–August, 2013), 207–232.

  12. 12.

    The Japanese conducted the first of many surveys of Korea's coastlines following the ratification of the treaty. On this topic, see Han Cheolho, “Cho-Il Suho Choyak Ch'ekyŏl Yihu Ilpon Kunham Hoshoŭi Chosŏn Haean Ch'oech'o Ch'ŭkryangkwa Kŭ Ŭiŭi,” (The Ratification of the Treaty of Amity and the Japanese Frigate Hosho's Initial Survey of Korean Coasts and Its Significance) Hankuk Sahakpo (Korean History Bulletin), Vol. 83 (May, 2021), 161–197.

  13. 13.

    Articles 1, 2, and 3 of Cho-Il Suho Chokyu Purok (Appendix to the Treaty of Amity Between Korea and Japan), HICC, 55–56.

  14. 14.

    Article 4 of Cho-Il Suho Chokyu Purok, HICC, 56.

  15. 15.

    Article 5 of Cho-Il Suho Chokyu Purok, HICC, 56.

  16. 16.

    Article 6 of Cho-Il Suho Chokyu Purok, HICC, 56.

  17. 17.

    Article 7 of Cho-Il Suho Chokyu Purok, HICC, 56.

  18. 18.

    Articles 8 and 9 of Cho-Il Suho Chokyu Purok, HICC, 57.

  19. 19.

    Article 10 of Cho-Il Suho Chokyu Purok, HICC, 57.

  20. 20.

    Article 10 of Cho-Il Suho Chokyu Purok, HICC, 57.

  21. 21.

    For a detailed analysis of the Appendix, see Kim Hŭngsu, “Cho-Il Su-ho Chokyu Pusokchoyakŭi Chaekŏmt'o,” (A Re-examination of the Appendix of the Treaty of Amity Between Korea and Japan) Han-Il Kwankyesa Yŏnku (Studies on Korea-Japan Relations), Vol. 57 (2017), 393–430.

  22. 22.

    Article 1 of Cho-Il T'ongsang Changchŏng (Treaty on Commerical Relations Between Korea and Japan), HICC, 296.

  23. 23.

    Articles 2, 3, 4, and 5 of Cho-Il T'ongsang Changchŏng, HICC, 297–298.

  24. 24.

    Article 6 of Cho-Il T'ongsang Changchŏng, HICC, 298.

  25. 25.

    Article 7 of Cho-Il T'ongsang Changchŏng, HICC, 298. For a general discussion of the treaty's importance, see Choi Tŏksu et al., Choyakŭro Pon Hankuk Kŭndaesa (Early Modern Korean History as Seen Through Documents) (Seoul, Korea: Yŏllin Ch'aektŭl [Open Books], 2010).

  26. 26.

    Articles 8, 9, and 10 of Cho-Il T'ongsang Changchŏng, HICC, 298–299.

  27. 27.

    TaeGyun Park, “Reception of International Law in the Late Chosŏn Dynasty,” Journal of International and Area Studies, Vol. 11, No. 3 (2004), 39–49.

  28. 28.

    “Report from Takezoe Shinichiro to Inoue Kaoru,” February 13, 1883, Japan Center for Asian Historical Records (JACAR) Reference No. A03023651600. Cited in HICC, 370.

  29. 29.

    Article 2 of Cho-Il T'ongsangchangchŏng (1883), HICC, 333.

  30. 30.

    Articles 5 and 6 of Cho-Il T'ongsangchangchŏng (1883), HICC, 334.

  31. 31.

    Article 7 of Cho-Il T'ongsangchangchŏng (1883), HICC, 334.

  32. 32.

    Article 18 of Cho-Il T'ongsangchangchŏng (1883), HICC, 337.

  33. 33.

    Article 21 of Cho-Il T'ongsangchangchŏng (1883), HICC, 338.

  34. 34.

    Article 31 Cho-Il T'ongsangchangchŏng (1883), HICC, 340.

  35. 35.

    Article 40 Cho-Il T'ongsangchangchŏng (1883), HICC, 342.

  36. 36.

    Article 41 Cho-Il T'ongsangchangchŏng (1883), HICC, 343.

  37. 37.

    Pusanku Chokye Choyak (Treaty on Japanese Concessions in Pusan) (1877), HICC, 112.

  38. 38.

    Pusanku Chokye Choyak (1877), HICC, 112.

  39. 39.

    For more information on Pusan and Waekwan, see Song Hyeyŏng and U Tongsŏn, “Pusanŭi Ilpon-in Kŏryu-chi Hyŏngsŏng Kwachŏng—1876 Nyŏn Kaehangesŏ 1910 Nyŏn Kukkwŏn Ch'imt'alkkachi,” (The Process Behind the Formation of Japanese Residential Areas in Pusan—From the Opening of Pusan in 1876 to the Annexation of 1910) Kyehoekkye (Planning and Design), Vol. 21, No. 1 (April, 2001), 313–316; Tabohashi Kiyoshi and Kim Chong-hak trans., Kŭntae Il-Sŏn Kwankyeŭi Yŏnku (Kindai Ni-Sen Kankeino Kenkyu) (A Study of Early Modern Japan-Korea Relations) (Seoul, Korea: Ilchokak, 2013); Chŏn Sŏnghyŏn, “Cho-kyewa Kŏryuchi Sayi: Kaehangchang Pusanŭi Ilponin Kŏchuchirŭl Tullŏsan Chosŏnkwa Ilponŭi Ipchang Ch'a-yiwa Ŭimi,” (Between a Concession and a Residential Area: Positional Differences Between Korea and Japan Regarding the Japanese Residential Area in Pusan and Their Significance) Han-Il Kwankyesa Yŏnku (Studies on Korea-Japan Relations), Vol. 62 (November, 2018), 327–364.

  40. 40.

    Article 1 of P'anli P'yoryusŏnch'ŏkchangchŏng (Treaty on Stranded Ships and People) (1877), HICC, 460.

  41. 41.

    Article 2 of P'anli P'yoryusŏnch'ŏkchangchŏng (1877), HICC, 460.

  42. 42.

    Article 3 of P'anli P'yoryusŏnch'ŏkchangchŏng (1877), HICC, 461.

  43. 43.

    Article 4 of P'anli P'yoryusŏnch'ŏkchangchŏng (1877), HICC, 461.

  44. 44.

    For further discussions on the treaty see, Hoon Lee, “Kŭntae Tonghaepatarŭl Tullŏssan P'yoryuminŭi Songhwankwa Han-Il Kwankye,” (The Repatriation of Stranded People Around the East Sea and Early Modern Korea-Japan Relations) Yŏngnam Taehakkyo Tokto Yŏnkuso Haksul Taehoe (Yŏngnam University Symposium on Academic Research on Dokdo), Vol. 10 (2012); Han Myŏngch'ŏl, “Meiji Ch'oki Songhwan P'yoryumin Sarye Yŏnku,” (A Study of Examples of Stranded People Repatriated During the Early Meiji Period) Hankukhak Nonch'ong (Review of Korean Studies), Vol. 50 (2018).

  45. 45.

    Article 1 of Sŏkt'an Chŏchangkwa Unpan Yakchŏng (Convention on the Shipping and Transportation of Coal) (1877), HICC, 311–312.

  46. 46.

    Article 2 of Sŏkt'an Chŏchangkwa Unpan Yakchŏng (1877), HICC, 312.

  47. 47.

    Article 3 of Sŏkt'an Chŏchangkwa Unpan Yakchŏng (1877), HICC, 312.

  48. 48.

    Articles 4 and 5 of Sŏkt'an Chŏchangkwa Unpan Yakchŏng (1877), HICC, 312.

  49. 49.

    Article 6 of Sŏkt'an Chŏchangkwa Unpan Yakchŏng (1877), HICC, 312.

  50. 50.

    For a more specific contextualization of the treaty within the history of Japanese surveys of Korea's maritime space, see Nam Youngwoo, Ilcheŭi Hanpanto Ch'ŭkryang Ch'imryaksa: Chosŏn Mal ~ Ilche Kangchŏmki (A History of Japanese Imperialist Surveys of the Korean Peninsula: From the End of the Choson Dynasty to Korea Under Japanese Colonial Rule) (Seoul, Korea: Pŏpmunsa, 2011).

  51. 51.

    Article 1 of Wŏnsanjin Kaehang Yeyak (Preliminary Treaty Concerning the Opening of Wonsanjin) (1879), HICC, 126.

  52. 52.

    Article 3 of Wŏnsanchin Kaehang Yeyak (1879), HICC, 126.

  53. 53.

    Article 4 of Wŏnsanchin Kaehang Yeyak (1879), HICC, 126.

  54. 54.

    Article 5 of Wŏnsanchin Kaehang Yeyak (1879), HICC, 126.

  55. 55.

    Article 6 of Wŏnsanchin Kaehang Yeyak (1879), HICC, 127.

  56. 56.

    Article 7 of Wŏnsanchin Kaehang Yeyak (1879), HICC, 127.

  57. 57.

    Wŏnsanjin Kŏryuchi Choyaksŏ (Agreement on Wonsanjin Living Quarters) (1879), HICC, 128.

  58. 58.

    For more information on Japan's opening of Wŏnsan and In-ch'ŏn, see The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan ed., Nihon Gaiko Bunsho (Japanese Diplomatic Documents), Vols. 12 and 14 (1949, 1951).

  59. 59.

    See Tabohashi Kiyoshi (author) and Kim Chong-hak trans., Kindai Ni-Sen Kankei no Ken-kyu (Seoul, Korea: Ilchokak, 1940; 2013); Kim Hŭng-su, “Hanabusa Kongsaŭi Chosŏn Chŏngch'aekkwa Inch'ŏn Kaehang,” Tongkuk Sahak, Vol. 63 (2017), 155–186.

  60. 60.

    See Kim Hŭng-su, Han-Il Kwankyeŭi Kŭntaechŏk Kaep'yŏn Kwachŏng (The Process of Reconfiguration in Early Modern Korea-Japan Relations) (Seoul, Korea: Seoul National University Press, 2010); Charles Paullin, “The Opening of Korea by Commodore Shufeldt,” Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 3 (September, 1910), 470–499; The Northeast Asian History Foundation ed., Kŭntae Hankuk Woekyo Munsŏ, Vol. 1 (Seoul, Korea: Northeast Asian History Foundation 2009) and Kŭntae Hankuk Woekyo Munsŏ, Vol. 2 (Seoul, Korea: Northeast Asian History Foundation, 2009) (Early Modern Korean Diplomatic Documents, 2 Vols.).

  61. 61.

    HICC, 79; Dennis Warner and Peggy Warner, The Tide at Sunrise: A History of the Russo-Japanese War, 1904–1905 (Portland, Oregon and London, England: Frank Cass, 2002), 87–90. See also Kim Hŭngsu, “Imoh Kullan Siki Il-ponŭi Chosŏn Chŏngch'aekkwa Yŏron,” (Korea's Policies During the Imoh Mutiny and Public Opinion) Kunsa Yŏnku (Studies on Military History), Vol. 136 (2013), 35–64.

  62. 62.

    Article 1 of Chemulp'o Choyak (Treaty of Chemulp'o) (1882), HICC, 74.

  63. 63.

    Articles 2 and 3 of Chemulp'o Choyak (1882), HICC, 75.

  64. 64.

    Article 4 of Chemulp'o Choyak (1882), HICC, 75.

  65. 65.

    Article 5 of Chemulp'o Choyak (1882), HICC, 75.

  66. 66.

    Article 6 of Chemulp'o Choyak (1882), HICC, 75.

  67. 67.

    Article 1 of Cho-Il Suho Chokyu Sokyak (Appendix to the Treaty of Amity Between Korea and Japan) (1882), HICC, 76.

  68. 68.

    Article 2 of Cho-Il Suho Chokyu Sokyak (1882), HICC, 76.

  69. 69.

    Pusan Kusŏl Haechŏ Chŏnsŏn Chokwan (Treaty on the Construction of Submarine Telegraphic Lines at Pusan) (1883), HICC, 477–479.

  70. 70.

    HICC, 484.

  71. 71.

    Article 1 of Pusan Kusŏl Haechŏ Chŏnsŏn Chokwan (1883), HICC, 477–478.

  72. 72.

    Article 1 of Pusan Kusŏl Haechŏ Chŏnsŏn Chokwan (1883), HICC, 478.

  73. 73.

    Article 2 of Pusan Kusŏl Haechŏ Chŏnsŏn Chokwan (1883), HICC, 478.

  74. 74.

    Article 3 of Pusan Kusŏl Haechŏ Chŏnsŏn Chokwan (1883), HICC, 478.

  75. 75.

    Article 4 of Pusan Kusŏl Haechŏ Chŏnsŏn Chokwan (1883), HICC, 478.

  76. 76.

    Article 4 of Pusan Kusŏl Haechŏ Chŏnsŏn Chokwan (1883), HICC, 478.

  77. 77.

    Article 5 of Pusan Kusŏl Haechŏ Chŏnsŏn Chokwan (1883), HICC, 478.

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    Kyu-hyun Jo

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Jo, Kh. (2023). The First Unequal Treaties and the Forced Opening of Korean Ports. In: Japanese "Judicial Imperialism" and the Origins of the Coercive Illegality of Japan's Annexation of Korea. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1975-8_2

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