ファシズムとは？

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ファシズム 2 [fascism]

第一次大戦後に現れた全体主義的・排外的政治理念、またその政治体制。自由主義を否定し一党独裁による専制主義・国粋主義をとり、指導者に対する絶対の服従と反対者に対する過酷な弾圧、対外的には反共を掲げ侵略政策をとることを特色とした。イタリアのファシスト党に始まる。ファッショ。
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ファシズム

出典: フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 (2012/02/01 08:49 UTC 版)

ファシズム（英: fascism、伊: fascismo）とは、本来はイタリアのムッソリーニや国家ファシスト党（以下ファシスト党）が提唱した思想や政治運動、および1922年から1942年までの政権獲得時に行った実践や体制の総称である[1][2][3]。共産主義者の国際組織「コミンテルン」は、主にドイツのナチズムを指して「ファシズム」としていた。



表・話・編・歴
National Fascist Party logo.svg ファシズム運動 National Fascist Party logo.svg
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組織
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表・話・編・歴
政治思想
自由主義 A coloured voting box.svg
民主主義
資本主義
社会主義
権威主義
集団主義
環境主義
政治的スペクトル
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統治体制
支配者の種類
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脚注
  1. ^ 「(1)狭義では、イタリアのファシスト党の運動、並びに同党が権力を握っていた時期の政治的理念およびその体制。(2)広義では、イタリア-ファシズムと共通の本質をもつ傾向・運動・支配体制。（以下略）」（広辞苑第四版）
  2. ^ Fasism - thefreedictionary.com
  3. ^ fascism -Oxford Dictionary of Sociology
  4. ^ Girvin, Brianの「The Right in the Twentieth Century」（Pinter、1994年）P83ではファシズムを以下のように記述した「反自由主義の急進主義的な権威主義のナショナリストの運動」(anti-liberal radical authoritarian nationalist movement)。
  5. ^ Turner, Henry Ashbyの「Reappraisals of Fascism、（ New Viewpoints、1975年） P162では以下と記した「（ファシズムの）急進的で権威主義的なナショナリズムの目標」(goals of radical and authoritarian nationalism)
  6. ^ Payne, Stanleyは「en:University of Wisconsin Press」（1992年、P43）で、1923年から1977年のスペインのファシズムにおけるスペインのファシストen:José Antonio Primo de Riveraの目標を以下のように記した「若いJosé Antonioの主要な政治的情熱は、彼の父の著作の正しさの証明を長く保持したもので、彼は今、急進的で権威主義的なナショナリストの体制の概念化を試みた。(Young José Antonio's primary political passion was and would long remain the vindication of his father's work, which he was now trying to conceptualize in a radical, authoritarian nationalist form)
  7. ^ Larsen, Stein Ugelvikや Hagtvet, Berntや Myklebust, Jan Petterは「Who were the Fascists: social roots of European Fascism」(p.424)で、ファシズムの参照用定義(reference calls)を「統合された急進的なナショナリストの権威主義の、組織的な体制」(organized form of integrative radical nationalist authoritarianism)と記した
  8. ^ Wiarda, Howard J.の「Corporatism and comparative politics」(M.E. Sharpe、1996年) p12
  9. ^ ファシズムの主要なテーマはE.G. Noel O'Sullivanによると、コーポラティズム、革命、指導者原理、集団主義、国家的自給自足の5つである(E.G. Noel O'Sullivan's five major themes of fascism are: corporatism, revolution, the leader principle, messianic faith, and autarky)
  10. ^ 「ファシズム読本」では、コーポラティズムがファシズムの最重要な主張であり、それのみが資本主義と社会主義の間の「第三の道」の展望を創造的に実現すると主張する(「The Fascism Reader」(Aristotle A. Kallis)
  11. ^ ムッソリーニは「コーポラティブ・システムは20世紀の文明となる事が運命づけられている」と宣言し、アドルフ・ヒトラーは「わが闘争」で「国家社会主義のコーポラティブな概念」が最終的には「破滅的な階級闘争に取って代わる」と主張した
  12. ^ Sternhell, Zeev; Sznajder, Mario; Ashéri, Maia; Massel, David (translation). The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press: 1994. pp. 189–190.
  13. ^ Payne, Stanley G. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. Oxon: The Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System, 2005 (digital edition). p. 112.
  14. ^ Lyons, Matthew N.. “What is Fascism? Some General Ideological Features”. PublicEye.org. Political Research Associates. 2009年10月27日閲覧。
  15. ^ a b Griffin, Roger: "The Palingenetic Core of Fascism", Che cos'è il fascismo? Interpretazioni e prospettive di ricerche, Ideazione editrice, Rome, 2003 AH.Brookes.ac.uk
  16. ^ a b Stackleberg, Rodney Hitler's Germany, Routeledge, 1999, p. 3
  17. ^ a b Eatwell, Roger: "A 'Spectral-Syncretic Approach to Fascism', The Fascism Reader, Routledge, 2003 pp 71–80 Books.google.com
  18. ^ a b Lipset, Seymour: "Fascism as Extremism of the Middle Class", The Fascism Reader, Routledge, 2003, pp. 112–116
  19. ^ ムッソリーニは「ザ・ドクトリン・オブ・ファシズム」で、ファシズムを右翼かつ集産主義と見なしたが、ファシズムは階級闘争や社会主義や社会民主主義などの左翼政治運動の高まりから発生した状況の改善に共感し、他方では同時に左が関連する平等主義に反対すると宣言した。"We are free to believe that this is the century of authority, a century tending to the 'right', a Fascist century." ... "We are free to believe that this is the 'collective' century, and thus the century of the state. It is eminently reasonable for a new doctrine to make use of still-vital elements from other doctrines," ... "Fascism is totalitarian, and the Fascist State—a synthesis and a unit inclusive of all values—interprets, develops, and potentiates the whole life of a people." (p. 14) "The Fascist negation of socialism, democracy, liberalism, should not, however, be interpreted as implying a desire to drive the world backwards to positions occupied prior to 1789, a year commonly referred to as that which opened the demo-liberal century. History does not travel backwards. The Fascist doctrine has not taken De Maistre as its prophet. Monarchical absolutism is of the past, and so is ecclesiolatry. Dead and done for are feudal privileges and the division of society into closed, uncommunicating castes. Neither has the Fascist conception of authority anything in common with that of a police ridden State." ... "Fascism is therefore opposed to Socialism to which unity within the State (which amalgamates classes into a single economic and ethical reality) is unknown, and which sees in history nothing but the class struggle. Fascism is likewise opposed to trade unionism as a class weapon. But when brought within the orbit of the State, Fascism recognises the real needs which gave rise to socialism and trade-unionism, giving them due weight in the guild or corporative system in which divergent interests are coordinated and harmonised in the unity of the State." (p.15) "In rejecting democracy Fascism rejects the absurd conventional lie of political equalitarianism, the habit of collective irresponsibility, the myth of felicity and indefinite progress." ... "Fascism denies that numbers, as such, can be the determining factor in human society; it denies the right of numbers to govern by means of periodical consultations; it asserts the irremediable and fertile and beneficent inequality of men who cannot be leveled by any such mechanical and extrinsic device as universal suffrage." Doctrine of Fascism.
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  139. ^ Ian Kershaw. Hitler, 1889–1936: hubris. New York, New York, USA; London, England, UK: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000. p. 182.
  140. ^ David Jablonsky. The Nazi Party in dissolution: Hitler and the Verbotzeit, 1923–1925. London, England, UK; Totowa, New Jersey, USA: Frank Cass and Company Ltd., 1989. pp. 20–26, 30
  141. ^ Stanley G. Payne. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. Digital Printing Edition. Oxon, England, UK: Routledge, 2005. p. 132
  142. ^ Dylan J. Riley. The Civic Foundations of Fascism in Europe: Italy, Spain, and Romania, 1870–1945. Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010. p. 87
  143. ^ Dylan J. Riley. The Civic Foundations of Fascism in Europe: Italy, Spain, and Romania, 1870–1945. Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010. pp. 87, 90
  144. ^ Stanley G. Payne. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. Digital Printing edition. Oxon, England, UK: Routledge, 2005. p. 270.
  145. ^ Stanley G. Payne. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. Digital Printing edition. Oxon, England, UK: Routledge, 2005. pp. 282–288.
  146. ^ Stanley G. Payne. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. Digital Printing edition. Oxon, England, UK: Routledge, 2005. p. 145.
  147. ^ a b Günter Berghaus. Fascism and theatre: comparative studies on the aesthetics and politics of performance. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, USA: University of California Press, 2000. 136–137
  148. ^ a b Cyprian Blamires, Paul Jackson. World fascism: a historical encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, 2006. p. 189.
  149. ^ Cyprian Blamires, Paul Jackson. World fascism: a historical encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, 2006. p. 190.
  150. ^ Ludwig, Emile; Mussolini, Benito. Talks with Mussolini. Boston: Little Brown & Company, 1933. p. 130.
  151. ^ Jayapalan, N. Plato. New Delhi, India: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, 1999. p. 81.
  152. ^ Aron, Raymond Main Currents in Sociological Thought: Durkheim, Pareto, Weber. Vol. 2. New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA: Transaction Publishers, 2009 (3rd ed.). p. 194-195.
  153. ^ a b c d Mussolini, Benito; Sarfatti, Margherita G; Whyte, Frederic (translator). The Life of Benito Mussolini. Kessinger Publishing: 1925 (original), 2004. p. 102.
  154. ^ Griffin, Miriam. A Companion to Julius Caesar. Oxford, UK; West Sussex, UK; Malden, MA, USA: Blackwell Publishing, Ltd, 2009. p. 437.
  155. ^ a b c Wyke, Maria. Julius Caesar in western culture. Malden, Massachusetts, USA; Oxford, England, UK; Carlton, Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Publishing, Ltd, 2006. p. 249.
  156. ^ Borgese, G. A. Goliath – The March of Fascism. New York, USA: Viking Press, 2007. p. 242.
  157. ^ Mussolini, Benito; Sarfatti, Margherita G; Whyte, Frederic (translator). The Life of Benito Mussolini. Kessinger Publishing: 1925 (original), 2004. p. 132.
  158. ^ Downs,Robert B. Books That Changed the World. Revised ed. New York, New York, USA: New American Library, 2004. p. 25.
  159. ^ Borgese, G. A. Goliath – The March of Fascism. New York, USA: Viking Press, 2007. p. 335.
  160. ^ a b Berman, Art. Preface to modernism. Chicago, Illinois, USA: Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois, 1994. p. 242.
  161. ^ Marcuse, Herbet. Reason and revolution: Hegel and the rise of social theory, Volume 1954. 7th ed. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Limited, 1977. 402–403.
  162. ^ a b c Germino, Dante L. The Italian Fascist Party in power: a study in totalitarian rule. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota / Jones Press, Inc, 1959. p. 135.
  163. ^ Golomb, Jacob; Wistrich, Robert S. Nietzsche, godfather of fascism?: on the uses and abuses of a philosophy. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press, 2002. p. 236.
  164. ^ a b c d Golomb, Jacob; Wistrich, Robert S. Nietzsche, godfather of fascism?: on the uses and abuses of a philosophy. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press, 2002. p. 241.
  165. ^ Golomb, Jacob; Wistrich, Robert S. Nietzsche, godfather of fascism?: on the uses and abuses of a philosophy. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press, 2002. p. 242.
  166. ^ Golomb, Jacob; Wistrich, Robert S. Nietzsche, godfather of fascism?: on the uses and abuses of a philosophy. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press, 2002. p. 242-243.
  167. ^ a b c d Golomb, Jacob; Wistrich, Robert S. Nietzsche, godfather of fascism?: on the uses and abuses of a philosophy. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press, 2002. p. 249.
  168. ^ Golomb, Jacob; Wistrich, Robert S. Nietzsche, godfather of fascism?: on the uses and abuses of a philosophy. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press, 2002. p. 250.
  169. ^ Golomb, Jacob; Wistrich, Robert S. Nietzsche, godfather of fascism?: on the uses and abuses of a philosophy. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press, 2002. p. 237.
  170. ^ Gregor, Anthony James. Young Mussolini and the intellectual origins of fascism. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, USA; London, England, UK: University of California Press, 1979. p. 29
  171. ^ a b Gregor, Anthony James. Young Mussolini and the intellectual origins of fascism. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, USA; London, England, UK: University of California Press, 1979. p. 31.
  172. ^ a b Talmon, Jacob Leib. The Myth of the Nation and Vision of Revolution: Ideological Polarization in the Twentieth Century. New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA: Transaction Publishers, 1991. pp. 451–452.
  173. ^ a b c d Payne, Stanley. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. UCL Press Ltd, 1995 (original); Digital Printing, 2005. p. 28
  174. ^ a b Roberts, David D. The syndicalist tradition and Italian fascism. University of North Carolina Press, 1979. p. 77
  175. ^ Pugliese, Stanislao G. Fascism, anti-fascism, and the resistance in Italy: 1919 to the present. Lanham, Maryland, USA: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2004. p. 25-27.
  176. ^ a b Hewitt, Andrew. Fascist Modernism: Aesthetics, Politics, and the Avant-Garde. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press, 1993. p. 144
  177. ^ Pugliese, Stanislao G. Fascism, anti-fascism, and the resistance in Italy: 1919 to the present. Lanham, Maryland, USA: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2004. p. 25
  178. ^ Fascists and conservatives: the radical right and the establishment in twentieth-century Europe. Routledge, 1990. p. 14.
  179. ^ a b Bosworth, R. J. B. The Oxford Handbook of Fascism. New York, New York, USA: Oxford University Press, 2009. p. 22.
  180. ^ a b c Talmon, Jacob Leib. The Myth of the Nation and the Vision of Revolution: The Origins of Ideological Polarization. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, USA: University of California Press p. 484.
  181. ^ Fascists and conservatives: the radical right and the establishment in twentieth-century Europe. Routdlege, 1990. p. 24.
  182. ^ a b The seizure of power: fascism in Italy, 1919–1929. 3rd ed. Abingdon-Oxxon, England, UK; New York, New York, USA, 2004. pp. 330–331.
  183. ^ Fascists and conservatives: the radical right and the establishment in twentieth-century Europe. Routdlege, 1990. p. 21.
  184. ^ Payne, Stanley G. 1996. A History of Fascism, 1914–1945. 3rd ed. Ambingdon-Oxxon, England, UK: Routledge, 2001 p. 112.
  185. ^ a b c d e f Cyprian Blamires, Paul Jackson. World fascism: a historical encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 2006. p. 628.
  186. ^ a b c Cyprian Blamires, Paul Jackson. World fascism: a historical encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 2006. p. 629.
  187. ^ Aaron Gillette. Racial theories in fascist Italy. London, England, UK; New York, New York, USA. p. 40.
  188. ^ a b Aaron Gillette. Racial theories in fascist Italy. London, England, UK; New York, New York, USA. p. 41.
  189. ^ Ebenstein, William. 1964. Today's Isms: Communism, Fascism, Capitalism, and Socialism. Prentice Hall (original from the University of Michigan). p. 178. Books.Google.com
  190. ^ Oliver Zimmer, Nationalism in Europe, 1890–1940 (London, Palgrave, 2003), chapter 4, pp. 80–107.
  191. ^ Paxton, Robert . The Anatomy of Fascism. Vintage Books. ISBN 1400040949. 
  192. ^ Griffin, Roger  (1991). The Nature of Fascism. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0312071329. 
  193. ^ Laqueuer, Walter  (1997). Fascism: Past, Present, Future. Oxford University Press, p. 223. ISBN 019511793X. 
  194. ^ “Fascism”. Encyclopædia Britannica. (8 January 2008). http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9117286 
  195. ^ Passmore, Kevin  (2002). Fascism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192801554. 
  196. ^ Griffen, Roger (ed). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN 0192892495. p. 44.
  197. ^ Griffen, Roger (ed). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN 0192892495. p. 183.
  198. ^ "Goebbels on National-Socialism, Bolshevism and Democracy, Documents on International Affairs, vol. II, 1938, pp. 17–19. Accessed from the Jewish Virtual Library on February 5, 2009. JewishVirtualLibrary.org Joseph Goebbels describes the Nazis as being allied with countries which had "authoritarian nationalist" ideology and conception of the state.
  199. ^ Mussolini, Benito. 1935. Fascism: Doctrine and Institutions. Rome: Ardita Publishers. p 14.
  200. ^ Linz, Juan José. 2000. Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes: with a major new introduction. Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 7. Books.google.com
  201. ^ Griffen, Roger (ed). 1995. "The Legal Basis of the Total State" – by Carl Schmitt. Fascism. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 72.
  202. ^ Griffen, Roger (ed). 1995. "The Need for a Totalitarian Japan" – by Nakano Seigo. Fascism. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 239.
  203. ^ Payne, Stanley G. A History of Fascism, 1914–1945. Routledge, 1996. pp. 485–486.
  204. ^ Griffen, Roger (ed.). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. p. 59.
  205. ^ a b Hawkins, Mike. Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860–1945: Nature as Model and Nature as Threat. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. p. 285.
  206. ^ Hawkins, Mike. Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860–1945: Nature as Model and Nature as Threat. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. pp. 282, 284.
  207. ^ Hunt, Lynn, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, R. Po-chia Hsia, and Bonnie G. Smith. The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures. 2nd ed. Vol. C. Boston: Bedford St. Martins, 2005. p. 1064.
  208. ^ Gentile, Emilio. The Struggle for Modernity: Nationalism, Futurism, and Fascism. p. 86. Books.Google.com
  209. ^ a b Philip Morgan, Fascism in Europe, 1919–1945, Taylor & Francis, 2003, p. 168.
  210. ^ The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right (2002) by Peter Jonathan Davies and Derek Lynch, Routledge (UK), ISBN 0415214947 p. 143.
  211. ^ Payne, Stanley (1996). A History of Fascism. Routledge. ISBN 1857285956 p.10
  212. ^ Pauley. 2003. pp. 72, 84.
  213. ^ Pauley. 2003. p. 85.
  214. ^ Pauley. 2003. p. 86.
  215. ^ Payne, Stanley G. 1996. A History of Fascism, 1914–1945. Routledge. p. 64.
  216. ^ Robert Eccleshall, Vincent Geoghegan, Richard Jay, Michael Kenny, Iain Mackenzie, Rick Wilford. Political Ideologies: an introduction. 2nd ed. Routledge, 1994. p. 208.
  217. ^ Griffen, Roger (editor). Chapter 8: "Extremism of the Centre" – by Seymour Martin Lipset. International Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus. Arnold Readers. p. 101.
  218. ^ Welch, David. Modern European History, 1871–2000. p. 57. (Speaks of fascism opposing capitalism for creating class conflict and communism for exploiting class conflict).
  219. ^ The Book of Poisonous Quotes, by Colin Jarman, McGraw-Hill Professional, 1993, ISBN 0809236818, pg 245
  220. ^ David Baker, "The political economy of fascism: Myth or reality, or myth and reality?", New Political Economy, Volume 11, Issue 2 June 2006 , pages 227–250.
  221. ^ Richard Allen Epstein, Principles for a Free Society: Reconciling Individual Liberty With the Common Good, De Capo Press 2002, p. 168
  222. ^ James A. Gregor, The Search for Neofascism: The Use and Abuse of Social Science, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 7
  223. ^ Herbert Kitschelt, Anthony J. McGann. The Radical Right in Western Europe: a comparative analysis. 1996 University of Michigan Press. p. 30
  224. ^ De Grand, Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, pp. 48–51.
  225. ^ Benito Mussolini, Richard Washburn Child, Max Ascoli, Richard Lamb. My rise and fall. Da Capo Press, 1998. p. 26.
  226. ^ a b Knight, Patricia, Mussolini and Fascism, p. 72, Routledge, 2003.
  227. ^ Pollard, John Francis, The Fascist Experience in Italy, p. 80 Routledge 1998
  228. ^ a b Neocleous, Mark. Fascism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997. p. 35.
  229. ^ Benito Mussolini, Richard Washburn Child, Max Ascoli, Richard Lamb. My rise and fall. Da Capo Press, 1998. pp. 2, 38.
  230. ^ Aaron Gillette. Racial theories in fascist Italy. London, England, UK; New York, New York, USA. p. 43.
  231. ^ Griffen, Roger (ed.). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. p. 59.
  232. ^ a b Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future p. 41 1996 Oxford University Press.
  233. ^ Turban for the Crown : The Islamic Revolution in Iran by Said Amir Arjomand. pp. 204–9.
  234. ^ Farrell, Nicholas, Mussolini: A New Life p. 5 2004 Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.
  235. ^ Pollard, John F. (1985). The Vatican and Italian Fascism, 1929–32. Cambridge, USA: Cambridge University Press. p. 53.
  236. ^ Rochat Giorgio, Regime fascista e chiese evangeliche, Torino, Claudiana, 1990.
  237. ^ Bracco, Roberto. Persecuzione in Italia . Rome, n.d.
  238. ^ Rochat, Giorgio. Regime fascista e chiese evangeliche. Torino: Claudiana, 1990.
  239. ^ Poewe, Karla O, New Religions and the Nazis, p. 30, Routledge 2006
  240. ^ Sarti, Roland. 1974. The Ax Within: Italian Fascism in Action. New York: New Viewpoints. p189.
  241. ^ Joseph A. Leighton, "Social Philosophies in Conflict", D. Appleton-Century Company, 1937. pg. 32
  242. ^ John Weiss, "The Fascist Tradition", Harper & Row, 1967. pg 2
  243. ^ Kevin Passmore, "Fascism: A Very Short Introduction", Oxford University Press, 2002. Chapter 6.
  244. ^ John Weiss, The Fascist Tradition, Harper & Row, 1967. pg 2
  245. ^ John Weiss, The Fascist Tradition, Harper & Row, 1967. pg 5
  246. ^ John Weiss, The Fascist Tradition, Harper & Row, 1967. pg 9
  247. ^ The Rise of the Nazis, Conan Fischer, Manchester University Press (2002), ISBN 0-7190-6067-2, p. 60
  248. ^ Mühlberger, Detlef  (1987). The Social Basis of European Fascist Movements. Routledge. ISBN 0709935854. 
  249. ^ ファシストの持つ反民主主義、反共主義、軍国主義などの特徴をある程度は持っているが、ファシストの持つ新国家創造の革命的な目標に欠ける。Peter Davies, Derek Lynchは著書「The Routledge companion to fascism and the far right」でこのような本当のファシストの国家や運動とは異なる側面を持った権威主義的な統治を「パラ・ファシズム」と呼んだ。
  250. ^ “Recruited by MI5: the name's Mussolini. Benito Mussolini” (英語). ガーディアン. (2009年10月13日). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/oct/13/benito-mussolini-recruited-mi5-italy 2010年1月3日閲覧。 
  251. ^ 大辞泉
  252. ^ 『社会学小辞典』（有斐閣・1982年・増補版）の「天皇制ファシズム」の項には〈日本の場合、イタリアやドイツなどのような「下から」の運動による国家権力の掌握ではなく、天皇制国家権力自体が「上から」なし崩し的にファシズム化していったので、天皇制ファシズムと呼ばれる。〉とある。
  253. ^ Yahoo!百科事典（小学館『日本大百科全書』）の「ファシズム」の項目
  254. ^ 『ブリタニカ国際大百科事典』、平凡社『世界大百科事典』の「ファシズム」の項目
  255. ^ a b Roger Griffin, Matthew Feldman. Fascism: The nature of fascism. Routledge, 2004. p. 222.
  256. ^ a b c d e Roger Griffin, Matthew Feldman. Fascism: The nature of fascism. Routledge, 2004. p. 231.
  257. ^ a b Anthony James Gregor. Interpretations of fascism. 6th ed. New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA: Transaction Publishers, 2006 pp. 131–132.
  258. ^ The Book of Poisonous Quotes, by Colin Jarman, McGraw-Hill Professional, 1993, ISBN 0809236818, p. 245.
  259. ^ Anthony James Gregor. Interpretations of fascism. 6th ed. New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA: Transaction Publishers, 2006 p. 135.
  260. ^ ファシズムとは何か - トロツキー

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